17 Attitude: Formation and Change
Dr. Pooja Mehta
1. Learning Outcome
2. Introduction
3. Theories of Attitude formation
4. Formation of Attitude
5. Changing Attitudes
6. Summary
1. Learning Outcome:
- After completing this module the students will be able to:
- Understand the various theories of attitude formation and change. Describe the sources of attitude formation.
- Illustrate various barriers to change the attitude and ways to overcome the barriers.
2. Introduction
Attitude of employees is very important for management because of its influence on the behaviour, perception and other work related behaviours. Bringing about the desirable change in the attitude and values of the employees is the biggest challenge for the management. This module focuses on understanding various theories underlying the procedure of changing the attitude and various forces that promote the change and the forces that hinder the change.
3. Theories of Attitude Formation
How do attitudes develop and how do attitudes change? To answer this question a number of theories have been postulated by various psychologists. These theories explain the process of attitude formation and change. These theories have been categorised into following categories according to the psychological process involved in understanding the attitude formation and change.
A. Cognitive Consistency theories
B. Functional theory
C. Social Judgement theory
3.1 Cognitive-Consistency theories
These theories assume that people seek consistency between their attitudes and attitude and behaviour. People endeavour to reconcile their divergent beliefs, attitudes and behaviour to attain the consistency and to appear more rational. Any inconsistency leads to discomfort, anxiety and tensions and forces are initiated to return an individual to the state of equilibrium where attitudes and behaviour are consistent. This can be done by either altering the attitude or by developing rationalisation for the discrepancy or inconsistency. In brief, we can say that all consistency theories focus on inconsistencies which occur between beliefs, attitudes and behaviour. Important consistency theories are explained as below:
1) Balance theory
Balance theory of attitude was given by F. Heider. This theory focuses on consistency in the judgement of other persons and the issues that are linked with some form of relationship. According to this theory, three elements viz. the person, the other person and the impersonal entity are involved in the process of attitude formation. Between these three elements, two basic types of relationships viz. sentiment relations and unit relations exist. Sentiment relations include sentiments between the elements and unit relations describe that the two elements are perceived as together. Both sentiment relations and unit relations can be positive and negative. The relationships between the elements are explained in the following exhibit.
The theory explains that generally people tend to perceive other persons and the objects linked to them so that state of balance is obtained in the system. State of balance exists if (a) three relationships are positive (b) two relationships are negative and one is positive. On the other hand, state of imbalance exists if (a) three relationships are negative (b) two relationships are positive and one is negative. The balanced states are stable and unbalanced states are unstable. Whenever any imbalance arises, it leads to state of tension and discomfort, which motivates the person to restore the balance by changing the relations.
2) Albelson’s extension of balance theory
Albelson in his theory suggested four modes for resolving imbalance in cognitive structures of attitude:
Denial
Bolstering
Differentiation Transcendence
a) Denial: It refers to denying the relationship when imbalance occurs.
b) Bolstering: It refers to adding another issue in the main issue.
c) Differentiation: it refers to splitting one of the elements into two elements that are negatively related to each other and in opposite ways to other elements in the system.
d) Transcendence: Combining the elements into larger ones.
The above mentioned four processes occur in a hierarchy so that person’s attempts to resolve the imbalance in the ordering can be discussed. The order of the processes is based on the assumption that the least effortful solution will be implemented first. The theory underlies the role of persuasive communication and interpersonal attractiveness in changing the attitudes.
3) Congruity Theory
C.E. Osgood and P.H. Tannenbaum proposed the congruity theory of attitudes which is very similar to the balance theory. This theory established that evaluation of the source and the concept that are linked by associative or dissociative assertion should be changed. The state of congruity occurs when (a) a source and concept which are positively associated have the same evaluations and (b) a source and concept that are negatively associated have the opposite evaluations. Congruity is the stable state and incongruity is relatively unstable. Therefore, whenever incongruity occurs, it leads to change of attitude. This theory suggests how much change in the attitude is desired to resolve the state of incongruity.
4) Affective cognitive consistency theory
Affective cognitive consistency theory was given by M.J Rosenberg. This theory is majorly concerned with the person’s overall attitude towards an object and his beliefs about relationship between the object and his values. The theory explains what happens with in an individual when change in the attitude takes place. It assumes that when attitude towards an object or a person is altered, relationship between affective and cognitive components of attitude is also changed. In addition to this, the theory explains that:
a) The state of inconsistency occurs when an individual’s attitude towards the object is inconsistent with his knowledge towards the object.
b) When the inconsistency is beyond the tolerance limit, the individual is motivated to reduce the inconsistency by changing one or both components of the attitude.
c) Change in the affective component leads to change in the cognitive component in order to maintain consistency between the two.
d) Persuasive communication can be used to change the affective component of attitude by changing the cognitive component. It means that additional information can be provided to the individual to change his cognitive component, which leads to the change in overall attitude towards the object.
5) Cognitive Dissonance theory
Cognitive dissonance theory was proposed by Leon Festinger in the late 1950s. Dissonance means inconsistency or discrepancy or incompatibility. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility which an individual may perceive between his two attitudes or between his attitude and behaviour. The theory established that any form of incompatibility or discrepancy leads to discomfort and therefore the individual will attempt to reduce that incompatibility to restore the state of consistency. The theory assumes that people seek consistency among their attitudes and behaviour. Therefore, in order to achieve the same they either change their attitude or behaviour or develop rationalisations for discrepancy. The desire to reduce the inconsistency is determined by three factors:
Importance: It refers to the importance of elements creating discomfort. If the elements creating the dissonance are very important for the individual, person will attempt harder to reduce it. He will either change the attitude or the behaviour to reduce dissonance. But, if elements are relatively unimportant, the pressure to reduce dissonance will be very low.
Influence: It refers to the degree of influence an individual believes that he has over the elements. If the individual perceives that dissonance is due to factors which are under his control, he will try to reduce it. But, if he believes that dissonance is beyond his control, he will less likely to reduce dissonance.
Rewards: It refers to rewards associated with the dissonance. High rewards associated with high dissonance tend to reduce the tension inherited in the dissonance.
3.2 Functional theory
Functional theory of attitude focuses on the need for understanding the purposes or functions of attitude. Attitude serves different functions for different individuals or for same individual but in different situations. The theory assumes that every individual has personal need for changing the attitude. Therefore, an understanding of functions served by the attitude is important in selecting the procedure to change the attitude. Because, a particular method may introduce a change in the individual whose attitude serve one particular function for him but, it may not produce desirable change in another individual whose attitude serves a different function for him.
Katz’s functional theory of attitude formation and change is the most popular functional theory. He suggested that attitude of an individual serves four functions viz. utilitarian, ego-defensive, value expressive and knowledge function. He further established that change in the attitude will occur if there is a discrepancy between attitude itself and the function served by the attitude. Therefore, attitude can be successfully changed only by understanding the function of the attitude.
Another alternative approach to functional theory of attitude was given by Kelman. He proposed three processes for attitude change viz. compliance, identification and internalisation. This theory focuses on the types of social relationships that occur in social influence situations. The three processes of change are explained as:
Compliance: Compliance occurs when attitude is formed or changed to gain a favourable impression from another person or group.
Identification: Identification occurs when a person forms or changes the attitude that helps him establishing or maintain a self defining relationship with the influencing agent.
Internalisation: Internalisation means adopting a particular attitude because it is congruent with one’s overall value system.
3.3 Social Judgement theory
This theory was originated by Sherif and Hoveland. The theory explains how a person’s existing attitudes distort attitude towards some other objects and how these judgements mediate the process of attitude change. In simple words, we can say that a person’s initial attitude towards an object provides standards or reference points against which he evaluates other opinions. These views of attitude can be defined in terms of attitudinal continuum which is comprised of latitudes. Latitude of acceptance provides the range of opinions which are acceptable for an individual and can best describe his own stand. Latitude of rejection provides the range of opinions which are objectionable for an individual. The latitude of non-commitment provides the range of opinions which a person find neither acceptable nor objectionable. Therefore, this theory applies the principles of judgement on the process of attitude change.
4. Formation of Attitudes
Attitudes are not inherited but, acquired over a period of time. Individuals acquire attitudes from various sources. The most common sources of attitude are discussed below:
a) Direct experience: Individual’s own direct experiences whether favourable or unfavourable towards an object or a person are the major source of attitude formation. For example, if an employee received his first promotion in an organisation just after six months of his joining, his colleagues will likely to believe that they also will get their first promotion after six months only.
b) Classical conditioning and attitudes: Formation of attitude can also be explained on the basis of principle of learning. Classical conditioning principle of learning explains that people tend to develop an association between various objects and emotional reactions accompanying them. For example, an employee develops a positive attitude towards his new assignment, because on this assignment he will get to work at a beautiful hilly area of the country.
c) Operant conditioning and attitude: Another learning principle, operant conditioning is also used in explaining the process of attitude formation. This principle explains that attitudes that are reinforced either verbally or non-verbally tend to be maintained or the attitudes which elicit unwanted responses from others tend to be abandoned or changed.
d) Vicarious learning: It is a type of learning in which a person learns by observing others. This type of learning also accounts for attitude development specifically when the person does not have a direct personal experience with the object. In such cases, an individual can develop his attitude towards the object by observing others. Generally, children adopt the attitude of their parents through vicarious learning processes. Another very common example of vicarious learning is developing attitudes by watching television, movies and other media.
e) Family and peer groups: A person can develop the attitudes by imitating his parents, teachers or colleagues. People observe the way their family and friends behave and start shaping their attitude and behaviour to align with theirs.
f) Neighbourhood: Our neighbourhood and surroundings provide us a very strong and influential framework of cultural facilities, religious and ethnic groups. The people belonging to different culture or ethnic groups may have different attitudes and behaviours. Individuals tend to accept or deny some of these attitudes in accordance to value system.
g) Economic Status and occupations: Our economic status and occupation also influence attitude formation. Our socio-economic background and occupation contribute a lot in developing our present and future attitudes.
h) Mass communications: All types of mass media viz. television, radio, magazines, newspapers and any other media which provides large quantity of information to the audience also influence attitude development. The information communicated through the mass media is constructed in such a way to cater the attitude of the audience. On the other hand people also select the particular form of mass communication that reflect their attitude towards various issues.
5. Changing Attitude
Attitudes of the employees are not always rigid, they can be changed. It is in the best interest of the organisation to try for the change. But, changing attitudes of employees is not so easy also as there are barriers to it.
A. Barriers to change
There are number of barriers which can prevent people from changing their attitudes. Barriers to change the attitude are discussed as follows:
I. Balance and consistency: A major obstacle to change human attitude is balance and consistency. It means that human beings always prefer the state of consistency between their attitudes and behaviours. When attitudes and behaviours are not consistent, individuals start feeling uncomfortable and tend to reduce the inconsistency and restore the state of consistency between attitude and behaviour. In order to reduce the discomfort, people generally either change their attitude or alter their behaviour or perceptually distort the circumstances.
II. Prior commitments: Another barrier to change the attitude is prior commitments. This usually occurs when people have their prior commitments for some other course of action and are unwilling to change.
III. Publicly expressed attitude: When attitudes have been expressed publicly, they are more difficult to change. This is because it is very difficult for someone to admit that they were carrying faulty attitude earlier.
IV. Insufficient information: Sometimes people don’t find any strong reason to change their attitude. The supervisor may not like a particular attitude of an employee, but unless or until he shows the employee that his negative attitude will not let him grow in the organisation, he will never change his attitude.
B. Ways of overcoming the barrier and changing the attitude
Few important ways that can be used to overcome the barriers and change the attitude are discussed as follows:
I. Providing new information: Providing new information will help an individual changing his attitude. Negative attitudes are usually formed due to lack of sufficient information. Sometimes new information changes the previously held beliefs and attitudes of the people. For example, generally workers become prejudiced and hold negative attitude towards intentions of the management. If they are provided with the information that management actually cares for the welfare of workers, they can easily change their attitude.
II. Use of fear: Another important method of changing the attitude is use of fear. Fear can easily change the attitude but, the change depends upon the degree of fear used. For example, if very low level of fear is used, people generally ignore it because warnings are not very strong. If moderate level of fear is used, people tend to change their attitude, because they get aware and conscious about the situation. If very high degree of fear is used, people tend to reject the message because warnings are too threatening that they are very difficult too believe.
III. Influence of friends and peers: Attitude can also be changed if friends or peers of an individual persuade him to change. But, such change also depends upon the credibility of the person persuading to change. Peers with very high credibility can significantly exercise their influence than those who have low credibility.
IV. Co-opting approach: Another way of changing the attitude is co-opting. This means involving the people who are dissatisfied with the situation in improving the same.
V. Training sessions: Use of training sessions can also change the attitude of employees. During training sessions, sharing and personalising the experiences and practicing new behaviours can stimulate the attitude change among the employees.
C. Types of change
Attitude change can be classified into two categories viz. congruent change and incongruent change.
Congruent change: Congruent change involves changing the attitude in the same direction, but intensity of the feeling is reduced. For example, if you dislike your colleague, the feeling of disliking may prevail but, the intensity or degree will be reduced.
Incongruent change: Incongruent change involves change the direction of attitude itself from negative attitude towards an object or person to positive attitude.
6. Summary
Attitude of employees is very important for management because of its influence on the behaviour, perception and other work related behaviours. Bringing about the desirable change in the attitude and values of the employees is the biggest challenge for the management. How do attitudes develop and how do attitudes change? To answer this question a number of theories have been postulated by various psychologists. These theories explain the process of attitude formation and change. These theories have been categorised as (a) cognitive consistency theories
(b) functional theory (c) social judgement theory. These theories assume that people seek consistency between their attitudes and attitude and behaviour. People endeavour to reconcile their divergent beliefs, attitudes and behaviour to attain the consistency and to appear more rational. Any inconsistency leads to discomfort, anxiety and tensions and forces are initiated to return an individual to the state of equilibrium where attitudes and behaviour are consistent. This can be done by either altering the attitude or by developing rationalisation for the discrepancy or
inconsistency. Important consistency theories are: Balance theory, albelson’s extension of balance theory, congruity theory, affective cognitive consistency theory and cognitive dissonance theory.
Attitudes are not inherited but, acquired over a period of time. Individuals acquire attitudes from various sources. The most common sources of attitude are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, direct experience, vicarious learning, neighbourhood, family and peer groups and mass communication. Apart from this there are certain forces which prevent an individual from changing his attitude. These forces are: balance and consistency, prior commitments, publicly expressed attitudes and insufficient information.
Learn More:
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