7 The place of Kavyaprakasa and Sahityadarpana in Poetics
R. Thiagarajan
1. The place of Kavyaprakasa in Poetics
In the history of Kavyasastra, MammataBhatta (1090 – 1160 AD) is a luminous star, remembered with respect and adoration. The general belief is that the study of Kavyasastra would not be complete without the study of Kavya Prakasa. The studies on Kavyasastra from Bharatha to Bhoja are beautifully explained in Kavya Prakasa. ( Sabda Vichara is his other work)
Purpose of Kavya
The work Kavya Prakasa defines Kavya as “Sabda and Artha without Dosha, possessing Guna, and decorated with Alankaras” It deals with the Purpose of Kavya. According to it Kavya brings fame and wealth. It gives the sense of life in the world, forbids everything unpleasant (to the student, listener and spectator), offers supreme pleasure along with learning, and gives advices on dos and don’ts like a loving wife.
Apart from fame and wealth, it gives instructions on appropriate behaviour in social life, with different types of people. The most important benefit is the enjoyment of Rasa, which is the inspired stage of ultimate pleasure, untouched by sensuousness.
K.P Instructs Sahrdayas
Keeping aloof the Sabda Pramana (Vedas etc) with the aid of the secondary aspect of Sabda and Artha (Guneebhava) and importance of the process of suggestion (Vyanjana), the Sahridayas are given advices, through the profound descriptive style of the proficient poet, to follow Rama and keep away Ravana.
K.P on Kavyakaarana
According to K.P the cause (Karana) for the evolution of Kavya is combination of, firstly the natural intellectual power of the poet, secondly the faculty attained through the study of the Sastras, on both spiritual and world matters, and lastly the training under the direction of the Guru, well versed in the style of composition of Kavya and its critical study.
Pratibha – the basis of Poetic talent
The cultural basis of poetical talents is the force of intellectual ingenuity, (Pratibha) without which Kavya would not take shape, and even if produced in any other manner it would remain a mockery.
Vyutpatti and Abhyasa
The other requirement is knowledge acquired through exhaustive studies. One should have a thorough understanding about the mundane world. He should also be conversant with the principles of prosody, grammar, vocabulary arts, warfare, and works of other great poets as also the Ithihasas. The intellectual faculty and the knowledge thus accrue, along with the training (Abhyasa) under the guidance and advice of those who are proficient in making and revising Slokas. All these i.e Kavya hetu, Pratibha, Vyutpatti and Abhyasa in combination cause the construction and development of Kavya.
K.P on Kavya Lakshana:
Sabdartha devoid of Dosha, combined with Guna (normally with Alankara) and sometimes without Alamkara, is Kavya. Sabda and Artha with Alankara should be present throughout, but in certain contexts it would explicitly remain as understood (in the case of Vyangya and Rasadi) and there too the Kavya aspects remain unaffected. When Vyangyartha (suggested meaning) is more graceful than the Vachyartha, the Kavya assumes superiority. These are called Dhvani Kavyas.
Prominence of Vyangyartha
The grammarians used the word Dhvani to denote Vyangya (suggestion) primarily of Spota nature. Then in the course of time, critics accepted them and started terming such Sabda and Artha as Dhvani (which rendered Vachyartha secondary), and potential enough to express Vyangyartha. Mammata’s argument is that the word dhvani was known to grammarians. Dhvanivadins like Ananda Vardhana started using that word in Kavya. His idea is “Dhvanyanthi spotam vyanakthi ithi dhvani” whereby Dhvani means words which express Spota. In Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, dhvani is Sabda. Dhvani is the word expressing Vyangya which is Spota roopa. Spota is obtained by the audible syllable or Dhvani.
Gunibhuta vyangya
When Vyangyartha (suggestive) is secondary to Vachyartha, it is Guneebhootha Vyangya The Kavya written prominently with Gunibhuta is Madhyama. And the total absence of Vyangyartha makes the Kavya Adhama.
Sabdartha Prakarana
Vachaka, Lakshanika and Vyanjaka are the three types of words used in Kavya. These also carry the meanings – Vachya, Lakshya and Vyangya in the respective order. There is also a fourth kind, Thathparya (signification). Vachaka is the real technical meaning express ed as Abhidha.
Abhidha is the technical meaning in relation to Jathi (group or classification). Abhidha is the main meaning. The process that takes place in the Sabda to make this Artha comprehensible is Abhidha-sakthi.
Lakshana
The word force by virtue of which another meaning is aimed at, and that one, which is superimposed is Lakshana. It happens by any particular signification in the Mukhyartha, or connected to the Mukhyartha or by Rudhi (Popular meaning)
Rudhi And Lakshana: (Prayojanavath)
In Rudhi, Lakshana has no Vyangya aspect. But it indicates the purpose – Prayojana (that is in vyangya). The purpose in Lakshana can be comprehended only through the Vyanjana process. It may either be abstruse or clear. In the context of Lakshana this would be of three types – Avyangyalakshana, Gudhavyangya and Agudhavyangya.
Usage Of Lakshana Sabda
The word with Lakshana is called Lakshanika. The Prayojana (purpose aspect) is the Vyangya in it, so the process of its comprehension is Vyanjana (suggestion). It is not inference but suggestion which is inherent in it. Abhidha does not come into play, because the second meaning is technically (Jathi) different.
Vyanjana Aspect Of Abhidha
Abhidhamoola Vyanjana:
When the Vachakathva (statement) of the words carrying different meanings is centered on one particular meaning (Rama + Arjuna = Parasurama) the allusion of the meaning other than the Vaachyartha is done through suggestion (Abhidhamoola Vyanjana).The word in which this Vyanjana process takes place is Vyanjaka. The other meaning which this Mukhya Sabda suggests is also Vyanjaka.
Arthee Vyanjana:
The means employed in the process of conveying another meaning is known as Arthee Vyanjana. These are Vaktha (speaker), Bodhya (speech), Kaku (intonation), Vakya (sentence), Vachya (artha), Annyasannidhi (presence of others), Prasthava (statement), Desa (place), Kala (time), Cheshta (gestures).
Kavyadosha
Dosha – General Aspects:
Dosha is that with the presence of which the Mukhyartha (Rasa) becomes degraded. Ras a is the primary meaning. Being dependent on it (Rasa) the degradation of the decorative Vachyartha would also affect the former. This is Artha dosha. It is through Sabda that the Rasa and Vachyartha become comprehensible. Dosha occurs through Sabda. This is Pada
dosha.
Dosha – Special Aspects
1) Sruthikatu 2) Chyutha Samskara (opposed to grammar) 3) Aprayuktha (not acceptable to poets) 4) Asamartha (not forceful enough to express the meaning) 5) Nihathartha (though Vachaka for two meanings, used only in the rare sense) 6) Anuchithartha 7) Nirarthaka 8) Avachaka (the intended meaning is not expressed through Vachaka) 9) Asleela (three types) 10) Sandigdha 11) Apratheetha (technical words used otherwise) 12) Gramya 13) Neyartha (word based and samasa based) 14) Klishta (meaning deduced with difficulty) 15) Avamrishta Vidheyamsa (not prominently indicated) 16) Virudhamathi krith (giving opposite meaning).
Gunalakshana
Just like the characteristics as courage etc. for the inner being, the inevitable glorification of Rasa (soul of kavya) is Guna.
Guna Bheda
The Gunas are three – Mathurya, Ojas, and Prasada. That which promotes the liquefaction of the mind and the pleasure of evoking the sense of Sringara is Mathurya. Though mainly in Sambhoga Sringara, it becomes attractive in Karuna. In Vipralambha and Santha this is suitable. The glow that causes the enlargement of the heart in Vira is Ojas. Its abundance in Beebhathsa and Roudra also produces special grace. Prasada like fire on dried fuel normally spreads in the heart and permeates all Rasas. Though primarily Guna is the Dharma of Rasa, in a secondary aspect its presence is accepted in Sabda and Artha.
Vyanjaka Of Guna
The vyanjakas (factors of expression) of the three Gunas are Varna (syllable and words), Samasa, (word combination) and Rachana (construction, Vakyas etc).
Alankara
Guna and Alankara
The Angi Rasa that the Kavya contains is developed through the Angas of Sabda and Artha, the Sabdalangara and Arthalankara, which ornate as a garland does for the body.
Rasa
That which is the cause, effect and auxiliaries for Sthayeebhava in ordinary life, when used in Kavya or Natakas are Vibhavas, Anubhavas, and Vybhicharibhavas in the respective order. These Vibhavas of Alambana and Uddeepana, when combined with the cause, effect and auxiliaries manifest the Sthayibhava – that is the Rasa.
Utpatti Vada
From Vibhavas (the cause for the Alambana and Uddeepana of Rasa – woman – Alambana Bhava and Garden -Uddeepana Bhava) the Sthayibhava Rathi is generated. Its sprouting is made perceptible through the Anubhavas of (effect) of eye-movements and throwing of hands, and developed through the auxiliary aspects of Vyabhichari like Nirveda. That which primarily appears in the imitated Rama, the Nata who imitates them (superimposed on him) is the Rasa.
Anumithi Vada
Anumana is inference. In an object subjected to direct perception, another object may appear to be present, as explained in the Chithra Thurga Nyaya. This perception has got varied aspects. Seeing the Nata on the stage, spectator assumes 1) He is Rama himself (Samyak Pratheethi) 2) He is not Rama (Middhya pratheethi) 3) Is he Rama? (Samasyathmaka Pratheethi) 4) He is like Rama (Sadrisya Prathithi). There is also a fifth perception that is Anumithi, which intrinsically stands separate from the first four perceptions and the very same is the impression that the mind assumes on seeing the picture of a horse.
Though artificial, the process of assumption is natural. moment. It happens on account of the experience that has been gained through practice The vibhavas are actually created ones, the mind through Anumithi accepts them as correct for the for the Nata as well as the spectator or listener of Kavya. Rasa is the experience of such a cultivated cultured mindset.
Bhukthi Vada
It is believed that Bhattanayakas Bhukthivada is based on Samkhya Yoga. Sukha, Dukha (pleasure and pain) are the nature of the mind. It is not the dharma of the Athma. Purusha having been connected to Anthakarana, these are reflected in him. In the same manner Samajika, also experiences them.
Through the mediation of the actor (as imitator) the inference of Rasa takes place, and not its actual generation as such. But through the Abhidha in Vakya and Vibhava in Natya, it is being experienced in the same manner as a spiritual aspirant during his period of Sadhana gets glimpses of Anubhoothi. He consumes it and this is in short the concept of Bhukthi.
Abhivyakthi Vada
Vibhavana is the process through which Sthayibhavas are made enjoyable. Anubhava tends to create mental vibrations in the process of enjoyment and Vyabhicharana is the process of transferring this throughout the body. In Kavya and Nataka the cause and effect ingredients are ignored by the Sahridaya and he adopts Vibhavana. In such a mindset the personal involvement becomes redundant. The experience is akin to the realization that it is his own Athmabhava. Rasa remains as pure and free enjoyment itself. This is it by itself, and not the effect of any extraneous factor. It ceases to exist on removal of the Vibhava. It is also not known as the experience is completely a new one. Rasa is thus not an effect nor is it knowledgeable. It is quite transcendental; the absolute sense though presents itself of having come to stay through Vibhavas. It is not Nirvikalpa as Vibhavas are unavoidable ingredients. It is not Savikalpa because it corresponds to the unworldly Ananda stage. It is safe to conclude that it is an unworldly experience.
2. SAHITHYA DARPANA
The Place of Sahityadarpana (1325 -1390 AD)
Viswanatha the author
Viswanatha the author of Sahityadarpana, was not just prolific he was equally versatile. Apart from studying and researching aesthetics, he created a number of literary works, in all the branches of literature – poetry, prose, criticism, and drama..Some of his major works include Chandrakala Natika (playlet), Prabhavati Parinaya (drama), Raghava Vilasa (long poem), Raghava Vilapa (poem), Kuvalayasva Charita (poem in Prakrit), Prasasti Ratnavali (poem in sixteen languages), Narasimha Vijaya (poem), Sahityadarpana (study in aesthetics), Kavyaprakasha darpana (criticism), Kamsavadha (poem), and Lakshmistava (verses).
Kaviraja –his Title
Viswanatha takes pleasure in describing himself as kaviraja, and that as bee at the lotus feet of the divine Narayana, the pilot in the ocean of composition, the best of guides on the road to ingenious poetic suggestion, the jewel-mine of poetic utterances, the lover of that nymph dwelling in the eighteen languages employed in dramatic composition… minis ter in the department of peace and war. Viswanatha’s son, Ananta Dasa, also wrote commentaries and notes on Sahityadarpana
Sahityadarpana- The text
Sahityadarpana (“mirror of composition”) is Viswanatha’s most famous work and arguably one of the most comprehensive works in Indian aesthetics. This work
Sahityadarpana is on the pattern of Mammata’s Kavyaprakasha (11th c.) Viswanatha was. Perhaps, inspired to write Sahityadarpana after he had written a commentary on Mammata’s Kavyaprakasha.
The contents of S.D
Sahityadarpana has ten chapters.. In the first chapter, it defines poetry. In the second chapter, it defines what a sentence or composition is. It analyses the three powers of word (shabda-shakti). In the third – and one of the most important – it defines rasa, discusses rasa and makes a new approach to its realisation. The fourth deals with dhvani, and the fifth explains elaborately the suggestive power of word. The sixth deals with dramaturgy and elucidates the varieties of drishyakavya (natakas). The seventh gives a long list of the blemishes (dosha) in kavya. The eighth deals with the merits or excellences in the kavya. The ninth dwells on Riti (style) and the tenth lists poetic embellishments (alamkaras) with illustrations from a number of kavyas and dramas. The work has at least five commentaries on it.
Importance of S.D
Though Vishvanatha moulds the structure of his Sahityadarpana on the lines of Mammata’s Kavyaprakasha, he differs radically from the latter in his definition of kavya. He declares: ‘A sentence with rasa as its soul is kavya’ (vakyam rasatmakam kavyam). He defines relish as follows: ‘It is pleasure no doubt, but not the sort of pleasure which is felt by one which gratifies the intelligence. It is a peculiar kind of pleasure; It is passion or emotion, love or sorrow, wonder, or even disgust, or it may be pure and passionless joy, and excited by ordinary causes but delightfully suggested by a representation of what it causes, effects, and concomitant mental and bodily states in life are.’The work belongs to Dhvani school founded by Anandavardhana, and is severe on the critics of the Dhvani theory, particularly Mahimabhatta.
Sahityadarpana is different from earlier works in aesthetics. This work for the first time, combined, in one treatise, both the sravya aspect (poetics) and drisya aspect (dramaturgy) of aesthetics. Before Viswanatha, aestheticians had confined themselves largely to one aspect, though they often referred to the other. Further, while earlier writers on the subject, had by and large confined themselves to their own school of thought, only referring intermittently, if at all to other schools, Viswanatha, in Sahityadarpana, explicitly discussed all schools and thoughts of Indian aesthetics, before arguing the superiority of the dhvani school. There too, Viswanatha, does not agree with the equal importance given to the three types of dhvani as classified by ninth century Kashmiri aesthetician, Anandavardhana, who in his book, Dhvanaloka, actually established the dhvani school of poetics. Viswanatha concludes that rasa dhvani is what defines poetry.
Sahityadarpana’s definition of poetry – vakyam rasatmakam kavyam (any composition which gives tasteful pleasure is poetry) has been cited most frequently by modern critics while defining poetry. Rasa, is a complex concept used in Sanskrit aesthetics, from first century onwards.
Essence of Sahithya Darpana
Taking exception to Mammata’s definition that Kavya must be “Sabda and Artha without Dosha, and possessing Guna, and decorated with Alankaras, Viswanatha says that there is no harm if in any place Alankara is inadequate.”
As regards blemishes, he says it is impossible to keep away Doshas from Kavya completely. Dosha in a minimal way will not render the profound qualities of Kavya otherwise. According to S.D the stipulation in the definition “Sabdarthou Sagunou” is also not fully correct. Guna is in Rasa, and not in Sabdartha (Kavyaprakasa). “Sagunou Sabdarthau” means only that Guna would add to the beauty and not that it would contribute to the characteristics of Kavya.
Regarding Alankara S.D views that even if the Alankara is Asputa (unclear) it would not affect the characteristics of Kavya. Anandavardhana’s. Dhwany is the soul factor is classified as Vasthu, Alankara, or Rasa in Prahelika, there is Vasthu dhwany but it is not Kavya. There is no harm in accepting Rasadhwany alone as the soul of Kavya.
The concept “Riti is the soul of Kavya” –by Vamana is not correct. Rithi is merely the style of construction, which corresponds to the arrangements of organs of the body and not the life aspect. Athma is different from the body. Artha (meaning) has two faces, Vachya and Pratheeyamana. To say that Vachya also constitutes the Atma is contradictory in itself. Then what is the correct definition of Kavya (Lakshana) – “Vakyam Rasathmakam Kavyam.” Guna, Alankara and Rithi are the factors which develop Rasa. While dealing with the purpose of Kavya, S.D views that Even the less intelligent ones too get easily the purpose of the four Purusharthas through Kavya. Kavya gives instructions that we should get ourselves engaged in good deeds like Rama and avoid vicious actions as Ravana used to do and it also shows the ways to practice them. It is also said that by learning Kavya we achieve the Purusharthas, as also get proficient in arts like Nrithya, and music. Fame and pleasure to the heart are the other benefits.
Kavya adores the glories of God. It paves the way for Dharma. “A word that it understood and used properly is Kama-dhenu in this world as also in heavens.” Those who make Kavya get Artha from the kings and others. Artha brings Kama. By renouncing the benefit derived from Dharma, Moksha is attained.
While dealing with Padya S.D defines Mukthaka as a verse that has a self contained meaning and stands detached from other verses. When the Vakya is in two slokas, it is Yugmaka. Those with three are Sandanika or Viseshaka; with four Kalpaka and more than four, Kalaka.
S.D defines a Mahakavya thus: Those which are divided into Sargas are Maha- Kavyas. Devas or those of noble birth would be the hero of Kavya. There are also Kavyas with more than one hero. The Angi Rasa would be Sringara, Karuna or Santha. The other Rasas are also brought in as Anga (secondary aspect). The Sandhi arrangements should be strictly followed. The story may be from Ithihasas or those from noble traditions. The consummation should stress on Purushartha. Kavya should begin with invocation or indication of the subject. The sargas should not be less than eight in number. Each Sarga should be in a particular Vritta. The following objects or situations should be described in detail – dawn and dusk, sun, moon, day time, night, darkness, hunting, hills, seasons, forest, ocean, meeting of lovers and their separation etc.
According to S.D the Vakyas (the word combinations). should be chosen in such a way that the aspect of AAkamksha prevails (anxiety for the next word is retained at each stage). The word combinations should be graceful. The objects presented according to context should have continuity.
Criticism on S.D
Sahityadarpana has often been criticised as being more a compilation than an original work. However, even its harshest critics agree that it is the most comprehensive work on the subject. Many also particularly point to the lucid style of Sahityadarpana as one of the prime reasons for its popularity.
Web links
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viswanatha_Kaviraja
- https://archive.org/details/KavyaPrakash