3 History and Development of Poetics-3
R. Thiagarajan
Abhinavabharati is an excellent work of the 10th century. This commentary is a major analysis on all matters discussed in Bharata’s treatise It is the oldest commentary available on the Natyasastra. The Abhinavabharati was written by Abhinavagupta.In this monumental work, Abhinavagupta explains the rasasutra of Bharata in consonance with the theory of abhivyakti(expression) propounded in Anandavardhana ‘s work Dhvanyaloka (“aesthetic suggestion”), as well as the tenets of the Pratyabhijna philosophy of Kashmir.
According to Abhinavagupta, the Aesthetic experience is the manifestation of the innate dispositions of the Self, such as love and sorrow, by the self. It is characterised by the contemplation of the bliss of the self by the connoisseur. It is akin to the spiritual experience as one transcends the limitations of one’s limited self because of the process of universalisation taking place during the aesthetic contemplation of characters depicted in the work of Art. Abhinavagupta maintains that this rasa(literally, taste or essence, the final outcome) is the summum bonum of all literature.
During this period another important work on drama Dasarupaka was composed by Dhananjaya, which deals with the various forms of Sanskrit drama. Natyasastra and the above mentioned two treatises are considered to be the greatest contribution to drama and dramatic theory. The Dasarupaka, consisting of four chapters called Prakasas, deals completely with the topics of dramaturgy. but the fourth and last Prakasa contains a treatment of the theory of Rasa. The first Prakasa distinguishes Nrtya, defines the five Artha-prakrtis and the Sandhis (with their Angas), and concludes with definitions of Vishkambhaka, Pravesaka and other dramatic devices. The second Prakasa is devoted to the topic of Nayaka and Nayika, their characteristics, their adjuncts, and considers the four dramatic Vrttis and their Angas. The third Prakasa is concerned with the Prologue and other requisites of the ten kinds of Rupaka. In the fourth Prakasa there is an exposition of its peculiar theory of Rasa in which, instead of the relation of Vyangya-vyanjaka Bhavya-bhavaka is Mentioned,
2. Kavya kautuka
Kavyakautuka of Bhatta Tauta is yet another important work belonging to the 10th cent.A.D. This work is now lost, and its existence is attested only by the references in later works such as Abhinavabharati and Aucityavicaracarca of Kshemendra.
3. Kavyamimamsa
The famous Kavyamimamsa of Yayavariya Rajasekhara, belonging to the 10th century deserves special mention. The popularity of the Kavyamimamsa is indicated by the extensive use made of it by Kshemendra, Bhoja. Hemacandra and Vagbhata. Hemacandra. for instance, literally copies long passages while Vagbhata borrows many portions. Rajasekhara himself is indebted to many old writers and cites directly the opinions of Vamana and Rudrata and others besides unnamed authors who are cited under ihe general designation Acharya
Kavyamimamsa is not a work composed with the intention of subscribing to a particular poetic theory. Though such concepts like Rasa and Riti are discussed here and there, this work does not attempt to build any critique of poetry on their basis. Consequently this does not take the usual form of a treatise on poetic theory. However, this work discusses a variety of subjects which have direct bearing on poetry, and this supplies a wealth of valuable information.
4. Vakrokti Jivita (anti – dhvani)
The 11th century was another period of great significance in the history of Sanskrit poetics. Many important works were written and at least two main theories of poetry sprang up during this period. This may be considered a period in which emphasis was more on poetry than on drama. One of the outstanding works belonging to this century was Vakroktijivita of Kuntaka.
This treatise is of particular significance because it postulates the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit poetics. The title of the work itself suggests the theory it is subscribing to. This particular theory was also an attempt to demolish the teachings of the Dhvani theorists and to explain poetry by an extended concept of Vakrokti borrowed from the theorists of old. Thus, this was an attempt to channel the flow of poetic theory on conservative lines.
5. Vyaktiviveka ( Anti -Dhvani)
Another theorist belonging to the 11th century who attempted to contradict the progressive Dhvani theory was Mahimabhatta whose work is known by the name Vyaktiviveka. Herein, his attempt was to establish that there was no separate function called Dhvani in poetry; and what Dhvani-theorists postulated as the novel function of suggestion was none other than the logical process of inference. He strove to build a critique of poetry based on this concept of logical inference, and took great pains to prove that what the Dhvani-theorists considered as cases of suggestion were mere instances of inference perished.
Mahimabhatta showed that this was a function not confined to poetry alone. This theory of Mahimabhatta is known in Sanskrit as Anumitivada. However, as this was not a comprehensive analysis of poetry but merely an attempt to nullify the Dhvani theory, this theory does not merit recognition as a separate school of Sanskrit poetics. In his thesis Mahimabhatta gained no support from any subsequent author and in itself it was not capable of overriding the Dhvani theory. However, Vyaktiviveka remains a monument to its author’s aggressive logical argument
6. Sringaraprakasa of Bhoja
King Bhoja of Dhara was a scholar of repute (11th cent.A.D) His Sringaraprakasa is a voluminous work dealing with all known concepts of poetic theory in Sanskrit Poetics. It deals with both Poetics and Dramaturgy. The first eight chapters are devoted to word and its sense as the means of expression, and the theory of vrtti. The ninth and the tenth chapters describe blemishes and excellences of expression (dosha and guna) . The eleventh and twelfth chapters deal respectively with Mahakavya and the drama. The remaining twenty four chapters treat exclusively of the Rasas, of which the Sringara or love in its various aspects. Bhoja is noted for his view that there is only one Rasa in literature and that is Sringara This work derives its name from this view of Bhoja.
Apart from this, Bhoja is also credited with another work entitled Sarasvatikanthabharana. Also assigned to this century is Sringaratilaka by Rudrabhatta-an investigation of kavya with emphasis on Rasa, particularly Sringara.
7. Works of Kshemendra
The next important writer who lived in the 11th century was Kshemendra, a pupil of Abhinavagupta .He was the author of three works on poetry, viz. Aucityavicaracarca, Suvrttatilaka and Kavikanthabharana. Out of these, Aucityavicaracarca deserves special mention because of the exposition of the concept of Aucitya contained therein.
Kshemendra borrows the concept of Aucitya expounded by the Dhvani theorists and attempts to build up an approach to poetic criticism with that as the ‘life’ of poetry. Aucityavicaracarca is a comparatively short work with most of its space devoted to illustrations and counter-illustrations to various aspects of Aucitya propounded by the writer.
7.1 Fusion period of Poetic theories
With the concept of Aucitya, the appearance of new theories in Sanskrit poetics draws to a close Aucitya being the last of the schools of critical thought. Hence, Kshemendra’s work marks the end of the creative phase in this Sastra. Henceforth, the attempt of the thinkers on poetics was to organize and systematize the theories so far propounded into comprehensive synthetic theory of poetry. Consequently, the centuries following Kshemendra can be called the period of Fusion in Sanskrit poetic theory.
8. Kavyaprakasa of Mammata
Works of the brightest luminary in this phase of the Sastra was Mammata, (11th centA.D) the author of Kavyaprakasa, Mammata was a staunch follower of the Dhvani School and his critique of poetry is founded on the basis of this theory. Mammata’s work takes the form of a handbook on the subject with all the concepts and theories woven into one organic and compact whole. This treatise occupies an outstanding position in the history of Sanskrit poetics because of its intelligent interpretation and synthesis of the theories and the great literary acumen exhibited therein. Kavyaprakasa is a profound work and many were the commentaries that subsequent writers composed to elucidate the teachings contained therein. Although Mammata did not seek to expound any novel theory, his is undoubtedly a very intelligent and comprehensive study in Sanskrit aesthetics.
9. Hemacandra, Vagbhata and Ruyyaka
Kavyanusasana of Hemacandra who is believed to have flourished at the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th cent A.D. can be reckoned as another attempt at compiling a compact handbook of the Sastra based on existing knowledge. Another writer contemporaneous with Hemacandra and who deserves mention is Vagbhata-the author of Vagbhatalankara. This too is a work designed to traverse the entire field of poetic theory. It was in the 12th century that Ruyyaka composed his treatise Alankara-sarvasva which is devoted to a study of poetic figures. He was also the author of Natakamimamsa-a treatise on dramaturgy.
10. Natyadarpana, Bhavaprakasa etc
During the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries attention was focused on drama and dramatic theory. Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra (12th c,) and Bhavaprakasa of Saradatanaya (l3th c.), are two of the more important works on drama and Rasa which deserve special mention. Bhavaprakasa is of interest to students of poetic theory too due to its exposition of the Rasa concept. However, their mission was to expound and clarify the existing teachings and hence their original contribution to critical theory is meagre. Along with these, mention may be made of Natakalakshanaratnakosha by Sagaranandin (13th c.) and Natakaparibhasha of Singabhupala (14th c.) two other works on dramatic theory.
11. Candraloka and Sahityadarpana
Candraloka of Jayadeva composed in about the 13th century was another manual designed to cover the entire field of Sanskrit poetics. However, it is the fifth chapter on Alankara in this book that is better known among scholars. By far a much more important work in the tradition of comprehensive manuals on the Sastra is Sahityadarpana of Visvanatha composed in the 14th century A. D. This work was compiled in the same lines as Mammata’s, but a point worthy of note is that it deals with drama also in addition to poetry. He too on the whole like Mammata contributes to the Dhvani theory, but lays more emphasis on Rasa in poetry. Due to its intelligent interpretation of material and the literary acumen displayed, this may be called the second monumental treatise belonging to the period of synthesis.
12.Decadence of Poetic theory
In the centuries that followed, Sanskrit poetic theory entered its period of decadence, and during the 15th and 16th centuries, the works that were written were of secondary importance. It is interesting to note that this period sees a revival of interest in Alankara concept. A prolific writer of this period is Bhanudatta (15th c.) who composed two works, the concept of Rasa, viz. Rasamanjari, dealing more with nayaka-nayikas and Srngara, and Rasatarangini, dealing with the concept of Rasa in general. He is also credited with Alankaratilaka-a general work on poetics.
Among other works composed during this period, mention may be made of Ujjvalanilamani of Rupagosvamin (16th c.) a treatise on poetics with special emphasis on bhaktirasa; Alankarakaustubha of Kavikarnapura (16th c.) a work dealing with all concepts of poetry following Kavyaprakasa; Alankarasekhara of Kesavamisra (16th c.) another treatise covering the entire field of poetics and Rasapradipa of Prabhakara (16th c.) on the concept of Rasa.
12.1 Appayya Dikshita
Appayya Dikshita who belonged to the end of the 16th century, is credited with the authorship of three treatises, viz. Vrttivartika, Kuvalayananda and Citramimamsa. Of them, Kuvalayananda is a treatise on poetic figures and takes the form of a commentary on the chapter on poetic figures in Candraloka of Jayadeva. The other two works are incomplete.
12.2 Rasagangadhara
The last great luminary in the firmament of Sanskrit poetics is Panditaraja Jagannatha who composed his voluminous treatise Rasagangadhara in the 17th century. In the tradition of Kavyaprakasa and Sahityadarpana, this too deals with the entire field of poetics, and is an attempt to bring within the covers of a single volume a complete manual of poetic theory.
A special feature in this work is the influence of logical reasoning on the ideas of the author who attempts to condition his critical concepts by logical principles. The language employed in the work is also reminiscent of Sanskrit works on Logic. With Jagannatha, the line of eminent writers on Sanskrit poetic theory draws to a close.
Even though there appeared other minor treatises like Natyapradipa of Sundaramisra (17th c.) on dramaturgy and Alankarakaustubha of Visvesvara (18th c.) a treatise on poetic figures, these works were of meagre importance and contained no original thinking. They merely reflect the decline that has set in this field of study. Hence, it can be concluded that the progress of Sanskrit literary theory had come to a definite stop after Jagannatha. Consequently it is possible to conclude this survey of the history of Sanskrit poetics with the close of the 17th century A.D.
13. Summary
Abhinavabharati is an excellent work of the 10th century. This commentary is a major analysis on all matters discussed in Bharata’s treatise It is the oldest commentary available on the Natyasastra. Abhinavagupta explains the rasasutra of Bharata in consonance with the theory of abhivyakti in this work.. He maintains that this rasa(literally, taste or essence, the final outcome) is the summum bonum of all literature. Dasarupaka was composed by Dhananjaya, which deals with the various forms of Sanskrit drama. Natyasastra and the two treatises Abhinavabharati and Dasarupaka are considered to be the greatest contribution to drama and dramatic theory. Kavyamimamsa is not a work composed with the intention of subscribing to a particular poetic theory. Though such concepts like Rasa and Riti are discussed here and there, this work does not attempt to build any critique of poetry on their basis. Consequently this does not take the usual form of a treatise on poetic theory. However, this work discusses a variety of subjects which have direct bearing on poetry, and this supplies a wealth of valuable information. Vakroktijivita of Kuntaka.
is of particular significance because it postulates the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit poetics. Mahimabhatta also attempted to contradict the Dhvani theory in his work Vyaktiviveka. He strove to build a critique of poetry based on this concept of logical inference. Sringaraprakasa is a voluminous work dealing with all known concepts of poetic theory in Sanskrit Poetics. It deals with both Poetics and Dramaturgy. Kshemendra borrows the concept of Aucitya expounded by the Dhvani theorists and attempts to build up an approach to poetic criticism with that as the ‘life’ of poetry. Kavyaprakasa is a profound work and many were the commentaries that subsequent writers composed to elucidate the teachings contained therein. Although Mammata did not seek to expound any novel theory, his is undoubtedly a very intelligent and comprehensive study in Sanskrit aesthetics. There were many Alankarikas after that and the last great luminary in the firmament of Sanskrit poetics is Panditaraja Jagannatha who composed his voluminous treatise Rasagangadhara in the tradition of Kavyaprakasa and Sahityadarpana, the progress of Sanskrit literary theory had come to a halt after Jagannatha.
Web links
- https://archive.org/stream/Dasarupaka/dasarupaka_english_djvu.txt
- shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/22886/6/06_chapter%202.pdf
- https://archive.org/details/TheVyaktiviveka
- books.google.co.in › Literary Criticism › Poetry
- https://archive.org/details/vakroktijivita
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuntaka
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshemendra
- https://ia601904.us.archive.org/…/Saraswatikanthabharanam_with_Comme…
- https://openlibrary.org/…/Ksemendra_studies_together_with_an_English…
- https://archive.org/details/KavyaPrakash
- www.worldcat.org/title/kavyanusasana-of-hemachandra…/469564657