1 History and Development of Poetics-1

R. Thiagarajan

 

1. Introduction:

 

In Sanskrit there are several synonyms of ‘beauty’,—‘Saundarya’, ‘Caruta’, ‘ramaniyata’,‘Saubhagya’, ‘Sobha’, ‘lavanya’, ‘kanti’, ‘vicchitti’, and so forth. But the most frequently adopted key-term of aesthetics is Alankara. That is why Alankara-sastra should be translated as the science of beauty. Its widest meaning is adequately stressed by Vamana who aphoristically states — “Saundaryam alankarah.” Since ‘alankara’ can also mean a ‘means of beauty’, it can denote poetic and artistic devices also. In the Rgveda itself we have the use of the word aramkrti which is cognate with the later word alankara and which gives rise to the Indian name of aesthetics, namely, Alankarasastra. The Vedic term has a double connotation — one aesthetic and the other magical.

 

Later, the Alankara-sastra is called Poetics in English-( the science of poetry). In its wider sense, Alankara means ornament, embellishment, that which beautifies poetry. It embraces in its sphere, theory of poetry, the origin, form and variety of poet’s work. its faults and merits, and a description of several embellishments which distinguish poetic from un-poetic compositions. In its widest sense it covers the field of music, dancing and erotics. But poetics as a science must be of later origin, for without a volume of poetry (lakshya) there cannot be a science (lakshana) dealing with the regulation of its composition·

 

In its ordinary sense, Alankara means the figures of speech, called sabdalankaras (embellishment through sound) like anuprasa( alliteration), yamaka( chimes), etc., and arthalankaras like upama ,( simile) rupaka, ( Metaphor)etc. The alankara sastra has influenced poetic compositions in Sanskrit. The Mahakavya tradition was nourished by the alamkara Sastra. Though Alankaras are traceable in the Vedas and Ramayana the earliest Mahakavyas as those of Asvaghosha seem to have followed some of principles of alankara sastra; so also writers like Bharavi, Magha, Harsha and others. Poets always had the fascination and had applied the principles of alamkara sastra in their works. Though the principles of alankara Sastra existed earlier and was superseded by theories of rasa and dhvani, yet alankara was a subject dealt with by all the literary critics. This would convey an idea of the extent of the influence that the alankara sastra exerted on poetry.

 

2. Traces of Poetics

 

The Samhitas of the Vedas contain much that is poetic and figures of speech like simile, nature, hyperbole are found there in abundance. Stress is also there laid on the need for a faultless expression. The Supreme Spirit is described as Pleasure, Ananda and (the embodiment of) RASA, essence of sweetness. But a regular theory of poetics is not traceable in the Vedic literature.

 

Among Puranas, Agnipurana has some chapters on poetics. It mentions gesticulations, figures of speech and faults and merits of poetry. The figures of speech Yamaka, Citra, Upama, Rupaka., Sahokti, Arthantara. nyasa, Utpreksha, Atisaya, Vibhavana, Virodha and Hetu are described. But the enumeration is sufficiently scanty.

 

The word Upama occurs in the Rigveda (1.31.15, V.34.9). At certain places of this Veda, words are found, like anuprasa and yamaka as well as the figures of sense like upama rupaka, atisayokti,(exaggeration) etc. The SatapathaBrahmana uses some figures of speech; The Kathopanishad contains instances of rupaka. Panini (4th cent BC) has used the words upamana and upamita. There are instances galore of the use of several figures of speech in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata .

 

2.1 Alankara as a Sastra not traceable in Early Texts

 

The Alankara-sastra is never mentioned among the list of early texts. For instance, the Chandogya Upanishad does not mention it among the subjects to be learnt.The Apastamba Dharmasutra mentions the conventional six Vedangas. Alamkarasastra is conspicuously missing in Yajnavalkya’s (I cent AD) list of 14 sastras and the list in the Vishnupurana (earlier than 6th cent) which adds four more branches of learning

 

3. Divine origin of Poetics

 

Rajasekhara (10th cent.A.D) in his work Kavya-mimasa gives us an account of the divine origin of Poetics. He mentions the names of the original exponents of the discipline. It is said that the Spirit of Poetry (kavya purusha) born of the Goddess of Learning Sarasvati was set by the Self-existent Being,( Brahma) to spread the study of Poetics in the three worlds. So, he related poetics in eighteen topics to his seventeen will-born pupils. These divine sages, in their turn, are said to have composed separate treatises on the portions respectively learnt by them.

 

Thus, Sahasraksha wrote on kavi rahasya. (Secret of poets)Uktigarbha on auktika,(poetic expression) Suvarnanabha on riti,(style) Pracetayana on anuprasa,(alliteration) Citrangada on yamaka ( chime) and citra( verbal jugglery) Sesha on sabdaslesha,( pun with words) Pulastya on vastava,(svabhavokti or natural description) Aupakayana on upama,(simile) Parasara on atisaya.( hyperbole) Utathya on arthaslesha.(pun with meanings) Kubera on ubhayalankara,( both types of alankaras) Kamadeva on vainodika,( art of enjoyment) Bharata on rupaka, (dramaturgy) Nandikesvara on rasa, (aesthetic appreciation) Dhishana on dosha, (Poetic blemishes) Upamanyu on guna (Poetic excellence) and Kucamara on aupanishadika. (Poetic philosophy)

 

4. Reliability of the Existence of Poetics

 

Rajasekhara’s legendary accounts stand as the unalterable authority where the actual origin is forgotten. Though there is no mention of this account elsewhere in Alankara literature, they find expression in Bharata and in Vatsyayana with regard to the origin of the allied disciplines of Dramaturgy and Erotic respectively. The historical value of this passage of Rajasekhara is in doubt. But it is possible that this unique account embodies a current tradition, implying the actual existence, at some remote and forgotten period, of early expounders of poetic theory, some of whose names are still familiar, but most of whose works have apparently perished.

 

5. Early reference to Alankara Sastra

 

The Lalitavistara, a fairly early Avadana treatise,(Buddhist legends) mentions a Kavya-karana-grantha. The Sukraniti (13th or 14th cent, according to P.V. Kane) appears to be the earliest work to refer to Alankara-sastra among 32 sastras.

 

5.1 There are reasons to believe that this sastra originated much earlier than the 17th cent AD. The poeticians Bhamaha (7th or 8th cent) and Dandin (8th cent) refer to earlier writers or their views. Both Bhamaha and Dandin presuppose a fairly long period of development of this poetics. Otherwise, it would not have been possible to write such systematic and well-thought out treatises. Thus, it is justifiable to suppose that this poetics, as a distinct discipline, was considerably developed about the 6th cent AD. Had it been so, the poetics must have originated much earlier.

 

6. Probable Date of Poetics

 

In the fourth and fifth centuries, in the Gupta regime, there was a renaissance of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa is generally believed to have belonged to this period. Might be that the poetics also flourished in this period of cultural resurgence.

 

7. The development of Alankara-sastra.

 

With the growth and development of poems and dramas, a need was felt among those who were the composers and the critics, to frame certain rules both to guide the novices and to check the form and nature of the compositions. The rules of dramaturgy took precedence over those of poems, the figures of speech also were given some importance as they were intended to maintain and keep up the standard of sentiment.

 

This branch of study came to acquire the name Alankara on account of the importance given to the figures of speech. It is also called the branch of Sahitya because of the stress it lays on the inseparable relation between a word and its meaning, The following topics are generally dealt with in this branch of study: –

 

The theory and definition of poetry, denotations of words, the nature and varieties of the characters like hero, heroine and others, sentiment, qualities and blemishes, dramaturgy and figures of speech.

 

8.  Bharata’s Natyasastra

 

It appears that the earliest extant work available on poetics is Natyasastra of Bharata Muni. (1st cent B.C.) Natyasastra is an encyclopedic manual on theatre arts. Almost every aspect of drama and dramatic representation are discussed therein. Composition and enactment of a play as well as dramatic appreciation are dealt with in great detail; and as ancillaries to drama, such subjects as music, dance etc are fully discussed. In the same manner, Natya sastra deals with poetry and poetic theory also. Poetry comes within the scope of vacikabhinaya in drama in Bharata’s treatise. These apart, early traces of poetic theory also are found in this work. Bharata lays down that RASA is the essence of poetry, though his conception of poetry is dramatic. He enumerates 36 Lakshanas or embellishments, four poetic types and ten poetic merits and faults. But the Lakshanas were either included by later writers, under the heads of Gunas or Alankaras, or classed !t’s Natyalankaras. Guna and Alankara are acc ording to Bharata subsidiary to rasa.

 

8.1 Bharata the pioneer

 

Bharata’s treatise is a pioneer on the concept of Rasa. Bharata deals with Rasa to explain the aesthetic objective of dramatic representation; and even though there is evidence to believe that the concept originated even earlier, oldest extant theoretical writings on this important subject are those found in Natyasastra. The period of about seven centuries succeeding Bharata appears to be blank in the history of Sanskrit poetics.

 

By the beginning of the Christian era, the study of poetics has much progressed and we hear of various writers of whom we have references in citations. For instance, there are Kasyapa, Kapila, Kohala, Dattila, Matanga. Rahula, Sakaligarbha Matrigupta., Priyatithi, Sumanas. N andiswami and Brahmanandin. These writers must have so far speculated on poetics, as to recognise modification in the views propounded in Natyasastra. The result of this advance in poetic criticism was the immediate advent of distinct schools of thought of Bhamaha and Dandin and the possibility of newer schools in the coming centuries·

  1. Summary

 

The Alankara-sastra is called Poetics in English-( the science of poetry). In its wider sense, Alankara means ornament, embellishment, that which beautifies poetry.It is also called as Sahitya. It embraces in its sphere, theory of poetry, the origin, form and variety of poet’s work. its faults and merits, and a description of several embellishments which distinguish poetic from un-poetic compositions. In its widest sense it covers the field of music, dancing and erotics. But poetics as a science must be of later origin, for without a volume of poetry (lakshya) there cannot be a science (lakshana) dealing with the regulation of its composition·In its ordinary sense, Alankara means the figures of speech, called sabdalankaras (embellishment through sound) like anuprasa( alliteration), yamaka( chimes), etc., and arthalankaras like upama ,( simile) rupaka, ( Metaphor)etc. The alankara sastra has influenced poetic compositions in Sanskrit.

 

Though there are some traces found in the early texts, Alankara has not figured as the Sastra with definitions rules, regulations etc. The Sukraniti appears to be the earliest work to refer to Alankara-sastra among 32 sastras. Rajasekhara, however, talks of eighteen topics of poetics already known in our heritage. But, in the absence of congrete evidence it could be concluded that the recognition to Alankara sastra as a scientific treatise was given only after Bharata the author of Natyasastra.

 

From his time onwards there was tremendous growth of this Sastra which is discernable from the contributions of later writers whose attention was drawn towards the aesthetic pleasure derived from defining composing and reading the literature and also the visual impact of joy through dramatics. With the gradual development of this sastra the connoisseurs started thinking about what constituted the essential element or the soul of a kavya. It was Alankara according to some, riti or style according to some, Rasa in the opinion of others and yet others considered it was Dhvani.

 

Web links

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natya_Shastra
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics
  • www.shadjamadhyam.com/rasa_theory_with_reference_to_bharatas_nat..
  • www.britannica.com/art/rasa
  • https://online.vmou.ac.in/oldweb/studymaterial/MAfinEnglishpapV.pd
  • https://www.questia.com/library/…/sanskrit-poetics-as-a-study-of-aesthetic
  • www.britannica.com/topic/Natyashastra
  • 164.100.133.129:81/econtent/Uploads/INDIAN_AESTHETICS.pdf
    ayushnanda.com/history-indian-aesthetics-brief-notes
  • https://www.h-net.org/announce/show.cgi?ID=205620
  • www.hindupedia.com/en/Alaṅkāra-śāstra
  • https://archive.org/details/NatyaShastraOfBharataMuniVolume1