6 Vedic Culture

P. Bhaskar Reddy

I. Introduction

Cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 BCE. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the North-West India from the Indo-Iranian region. The advent of Aryans opened a new chapter in the history of ancient India. It marked the end of the pre- and proto-historic period. The voluminous literature produced during this period gave us valuable information regarding the polity, economy, society and the religious set up of the Aryans.

North India, especially the Gangetic Valley, was the cradle of the Vedic Culture, known largely from the vast Vedic literature. Vedic literature has been traditionally held sacred, for it is believed to have a divine source. The Vedas, according to popular Indian perception, are eternal. The various sages (Rishis) were their authors, and were transmitted orally from generation to generation. The Vedas were not committed to writing until very late. The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the early Vedic (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) when most of the hymns of Rig Veda were composed, and the later Vedic (c.1000 – 600 BCE) which belong to the remaining Vedas and their branches. The two periods correspond to the two phases of Aryan expansion in India.

The discovery of the Painted Grey ware (PGW) from the sites in the indo-Ganges divide, upper Ganga valley and the Ganga-Yamuna doab has provided the valuable archaeological materials to supplement, corroborate, check and verify the literary data in the Vedic literature, especially the later Vedic texts.

2. Original home of the Aryans

In India, the founders of the Vedic culture were the Aryans, probably an immigrant people. Their first arrival in India is dated between c.2000 and 1500 BCE. It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited before the arrival of one or more of their branches to India. The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and fringes of western Uttara Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the river Sindhu and its five branches are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Another river mentioned is the Saraswathi, now lost in the sands of Rajasthan. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called Saptasindhu, the land of the Seven Rivers.

Many scholars such as Ganganath Jha, D.S. Triveda, L.D.Kalla etc., tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans were neither foreigners nor did they migrate into India, but were the indigenous people, who regarded Sapta Sindhu as their original home. Bal Gangadhar Tilak suggested the Polar region as the original home of the Aryans on astronomical calculations.

Different scholars have identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia, Central Europe, Hungary, Scandinavia etc. But majority of them state that the Indo-Europeans emerged from the region between the Caspian Sea and the Southern Russian steppes. From there they migrated to far off places in search of pastured lands to graze their cattle. It has been proved that the Aryans before entering India stayed for a long time in Central Asia, but by second millennium BCE they migrated to North India through the passes of Hindukush, i.e., Khyber, Bolan and Gomal.

3. The Vedic Literature

The Vedas are the most important source of information about the Vedic Aryans. They attained their greatest cultural achievement. The Vedas are the oldest literature of the Indo-Aryans and perhaps the literary works in the whole group of Indo -European languages. The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhitas and the Allied Literature based on or derived from the Vedas.

3.1 The Vedas

The word Veda comes from the root ‘vid’ which means to know. In other words the term Veda signifies superior knowledge. The Vedas are four in number viz,

(i) Rig Veda                    (ii) Yajur Veda                (iii) Sama Veda              (iv) Atharva Veda.

Rig Veda is thought to be the most ancient and most sacred text. It is also the best source of information on the daily life of the early Vedic Aryans; their struggles, and aspirations, their religion and philosophical ideas. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns which are collected in ten books or cycles of songs. It is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. The mantras (hymns) were sung in praise of various gods. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. Books II to VII are considered to be the most ancient ones; they are also called family books because they were produced by certain families of sages. Book I and X were composed at a later stage. Book X contains a great deal of philosophical reflection as well as evidence of the caste system which is missing in the root Saman i.e., melody.

Sama Veda is a ‘collection of melodies’. It has 1603 verses but except 99 rest of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rig Veda. It is called book of chants and the origins of Indian Music are traced in it. These were meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udagatri priests.

Yajur Veda consists of various mantras for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. It is divided into Krishna-Yajur Veda and Sukla-Yajur Veda.

Atharva Veda contains charms and magical spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. It is divided into two parts, Paippalada and Sannaka.

3.2 The Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are the explanatory treatises meant as manuals for the guidance of priests. They are written in prose. Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The most important as well as the most voluminous of all the Brahmanas is the Sathapatha Brahmana. It provides us information about not only sacrifices and ceremonies but also theology, philosophy, manners and customs of the later Vedic period.

3.3 The Aranyakas

The Aranyakas or the ‘Forest Texts or Books’ dealt with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. They were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles, these are the concluding portion of the Brahmans. They lay emphasis not in sacrifices but on meditation. Owing to their magical power, secrets and danger the Aranyakas could be taught only in a forest.

3.4 The Upanishads

The word Upanishad is derived from the root Upanish which means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. The Upanishads are the philosophical treatises representing the highest product of the Hindu intellect. There are 108 Upanishads. They are called Vedanta, firstly because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. They also condemn the ceremonies and sacrifices. They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (Karma), God (Brahma) and Soul (Atma) as identical. They contain all the main ideas which form the germs of the later system of Hindu philosophy.

All the works referred to above are also called ‘Shrutis’ which mean revelation. Literally speaking ‘Shruti’ means ‘hearing’ and refers to the rhythms of the infinite hearing by the Soul.

4. Allied Vedic Literature

Smritis: These are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas, their supplementary. The word refers to that literature which has been passed on from one generation to the other. Literally smritis means remembrance. They are

i.  Six Vedangas

1. Siksha  2. Kalpa  3.Vyakarana  4. Nirukta  5. Chhanda  6. Jyotisha,

ii.  Shad-Darshanas

1.    Nyaya 2. Sankhya 3. Yoga, 4.Vaishesika, 5.Purva Mimamsa 6.Uttara Mimamsa.,

iii. Four Upavedas

1.  Dhanur Veda  2. Gandharva Veda  3. Shilpa Veda        4. Ayur Veda

5. Rig Vedic Age (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

The Aryans during the early Vedic phase settled in the Sapta Sindhava region which corresponds to Easter Rajasthan, Punjab and the Western parts of the present Uttara Pradesh. The Aryans used the term Saptha Sindhava in the context of country. This include the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with Indus and Saraswati. The Rig Vedic Aryans also knew the existence of three rivers the Kubha, the Krama and the Gomal. The words Samudra, Arnava, or Chatuh Samudra refer to the Vast Waters of the Indus. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people could be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.

5.1 The Vedic Tribes and Conflicts

The whole of the territory known to the Vedic Aryans was divided into a number of tribal principalities, ruled normally by the leaders or kings of various tribes. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dasas or Dasyus, etc. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by a chief called Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans, and they were supported by the priest Vasishtha. The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata, which appears first in the Rig Veda. The Bharata ruling clan was opposed by a host of ten chiefs, five of whom were heads of Aryan tribes and remaining five were Non-Aryans. The battle that was fought between Bharatas and confederacy of ten chiefs is known as famous “Dasarajna Yuddha” or the battle of ten kings. The confederacies of ten (eight and given two were to be traced) well known tribes are Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Ann, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas. This battle was fought on the river Parushni, identical with the river Ravi, and it gave victory to Sudas and established the supremacy of the Bharatas. One of the defeated tribes, the most important was that of Purus. Subsequently the Bharatas joined hands with Purus and formed a new tribe called the Kurus. The kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together established their rule in the upper gangetic basin where they played an important part in later Vedic times.

5.2 Vedic Polity

The basic unit of political organization was Kula or family. In the early Vedic period the tribes were organized on patriarchal pattern. As a result, the chief of the tribe became a tribal leader. The most capable protector was made the chief. The tribal chief or the Rajan was the leader of the people belonging to a particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, yadus and Purus. The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was heredity. People’s primary loyalty was to the tribe, Jana. The term Jana occurs at about 275 times in Rig Veda. His authority was curtailed by the tribal assemblies called Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana etc. Purohita was another powerful person who accompanies the king to bath and boost his moral with prayers and spell. The Rig Vedic king did not have elaborate administrative machinery. The early Vedic Rajan was assisted by Senapati and Vrajapati in conducting the administration. The Senapati will head the tribal force in times of war. The Vrajapati was in-charge of pastures. The protection to the people was the sacred duty of the Rajan. In return he expected and received loyal obedience from his subjects.

5.3 Vedic Society

The early Vedic Society was divided into three classes namely i) the warriors ii) priestly and iii)  the commons. The classification indicated that the society was a class divided society. By the end of the Rig Vedic period the society was divided into four castes i.e., Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The Purushasukta, xth mandala in the Rig Veda, refers to the fourfold caste system. Professions were not hereditary. There was considerable amount of flexibility. There were no rigid rules limiting marriage and inter-dining between various occupational classes of the society.

In spite of the patriarchal character of the family, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala were the famous women composers of hymns. Girls were normally married after puberty. There are evidence of levirate (Niyoga) and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. Sati was symbolic in nature and confined only to the upper strata of the society. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. Two pieces of cloth were normally worn-the upper garment was called Uttariya and the lower one was known as Antariya. The dress for the male and female did not differ much. The students used garments made of skin or hide-cotton. Wheat, barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food.

5.4 Economy

The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Wealth was estimated in terms of cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice agriculture. The Rig Veda refers to the practice of ploughing, sowing of seeds on the furrows, seasons, harvesting and threshing. With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. The main cereal produced by the people was Yava or barely. Wheat was the staple food. References to several arts and crafts were found in the early Vedic literature. Weaving seemed domestic craft, by women. The early Vedic Aryans knew the use of metals like gold, copper, bronze, silver etc. Trade was practiced on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called Niskha were used as media of exchange in transactions.

5.5 Religion – Rig Vedic Gods

The religion of the early Vedic people was more simple, realistic and less ritualistic. The Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. Their number is stated to have been 33. Indra was the most popular of all the early Vedic gods, who is called Purandara or breaker of forts. Indra played the role of warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. He shared some of the characteristics of the Greek god Zeus. Nearly three-fourths of the hymns of Rig Veda (250) have been devoted to him.

The second position was held by Agni (Fire God) to whom 200 hymns are devoted. Fire played a significant part in the life of primitive people because of its use in burning forest, cooking etc. Agni was worshipped as the god of priests and the intermediary between the devotees and god.

Varuna was next only to Indra in popularity. He was the upholder of the physical and moral order. Surya (the Sun) Savitri (the deity to whom the famous Gayatri mantra is addressed) and Pushan (Guardian of roads, herdsmen and cattle) were the other deities. Soma was considered to be the god of plants and an intoxicating drink was named after him. The Rig Veda has large number of hymns, which explain the methods of preparation of this drink from plants. The Maruts personify the storm.

A few female goddesses like Prithvi (Earth), Aditi (Mother of God), Ushas (dawn) and Arayani (goddess of forest) were worshipped. Thus there were a large number of gods representing the different forces of nature in one form or other.

Vedic people worshipped many gods to gain their favours. They thought that the gods might be satisfied by offering food and drink in order to get boons from them and avert evils that they were capable of doing them. They offered prayers and sacrifices to get in return pasu (cattle), praja (children), health and wealth (sampada).

In the Rig Veda a triple classification of Vedic gods has been hinted. The corresponding three orders are

i)  Terrestrial (Prithvisthan)

ii) Aerial or Intermediate (Madhyasthan)

iii)  Celestial (Dyusthana).

6.  Later Vedic Age (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

The history of the later Vedic period is mainly based on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, the Brahmanas and a few Upanishads were compiled during the later Vedic age, extending from c.1000 to 600 BCE.

The later Vedic texts show a wider knowledge of Indian geography than was found in the Rig Veda. They mention the ‘two seas’ the Arabian and the Indian Ocean. The Vindhya Mountains are indirectly referred to. During the period of composition of the later Vedic texts, Aryans became generally familiar with the major portion of the Gangetic plains. There they gradually settled.

The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of Uttara Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, combined, to form the Kuru people. From the fringes of doab, they moved to its upper portion called ‘Kurukshetra’ or the land of Kurus. History of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of Bharata, which is the main theme of great epic Mahabharata. Later they coalesced with the Panchalas. Together the Kurus and Panchalas occupied Delhi, and the upper and middle parts of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. Towards the end of the later Vedic period around 600 BCE, the Vedic people moved further east to Kosala in eastern Uttara Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. In the course of his eastward movement they encountered using copper groups which used distinctive pottery.

Now the Aryans made the transition from a semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition was accompanied by constant fights. After centuries of nomadic life the Vedic Aryans now began to cultivate fertile but semi-arid areas by means of river irrigation and also started to clear the Jungle wherever it was possible. The cultivation or irrigated arid lands must have been easier than the clearing of dense jungles. The Rig Veda mentions iron in texts which date back to the eleventh century BCE. This correlates very well with recent archaeological research which dates the first use of iron in north western India to the same age.

6.1 Polity

This period saw revolutionary changes in the Vedic polity. Aryans dominated the entire Gangetic basin and the fertile alluvial deposits were at their disposal. This brought substantial changes in their economic position and political setup. Many Jana tribes were amalgamated to form Janapadas or Rashtras in the later Vedic period. The Turvasas and the Krivis became the Panchala group. Finally the Kurus and Panchalas were amalgamated and became Kuru-Panchala group. Thus the later Vedic period provided a solid background for the emergence of the famous sixteen Janapadas of the Sixth Century BCE.

The royal power increased due to the amalgamation of tribes and increase in the size of kingdoms. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They included Rajasuya, Asvamedha and Vajapeya. Later Vedic literature contains discussions on the origins of kingship. The kinghship evolved more monarchical and hereditary in nature. The tribal assemblies like Vidhata, Sabha, Samiti, though present, came to be dominated by the nobles and Brahmins. The government became more complex because of the necessity of appointing a large number of new officers like bhagalugha (Collector of taxes), sangrahitri (treasurer), Mahishi (Chief-Queen), Suta (Chronicler) etc. The most important change that is noticed from early vedic to the later vedic period is that tribal polity was replaced by organized monarchy.

6.2 Society

The social institutions were developed in a clear and visible manner. The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmans, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Brahmanas emerged supreme and overtook the kshatriyas in the caste hierarchy, for they were responsible for investing divinity to the king. They claimed political and social privileges. They were exempted from punishments and taxation. The kshatriyas constituted the warrior class. They were the protectors of the people and the king was chosen among them. The Vaisyas devoted themselves to trade, agriculture and various crafts. They were the tax-paying class. The sudras the bulk of the population and attended to agriculture and other crafts.

Marriage between the members of the same gotra was not permitted. Women lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages also came into vogue. Restrictions were placed on inter dining between classes. Vedic social system transformed from a class divided tribal society into a Varna divided society.

6.3 Economy

The later Vedic period saw the tremendous improvements in the agricultural sector and it is evident from the later Vedic literature. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to six, eight, twelve and even twenty-four oxen were used to draw or drag plough. It also refers to the ploughing festivals. It is evident by about 1000 BCE. Iron was used in the Gandhara region. The use of iron implements became common in Punjab, Western UP and Rajasthan by 800 BCE. Not less than 500 later Vedic sites distributed throughout the length and breadth of the Gangetic basic yielded iron implements in association with Painted Grey Culture datable between 800 BCE. The surplus agricultural produce promoted trade and commerce. Trade was mainly based on barter system. Coins came into use only around 600 BCE. Nishka, Satamana and Krishnala were used as medium of exchange. Agricultural surplus and the development of trade and Commerce resulted in the emergence of cities and towns. It would thus appear from the above discussion that the later Vedic Aryans transformed the pastural economy of the early Vedic period into an agrarian economy.

6.4 Religion

Later Vedic period witnessed substantial changes in the realm of religion and mode of worship. The socio-economic changes that occurred during this period were responsible for that transformation. Sacrificial ritual cult became the corner stone of worship. Different types of sacrifices, rituals and ceremonies came into existence. Fabulous rewards were presented to the priests for performing sacrifices. The Upanishads dealt with much philosophical speculations. The Ashrama system had taken its roots and gained strength. This was meant to regulate the life of the people based on Varna dharma. They are the Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa . New gods like Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra emerged and their importance grew at the cost of Indra and Varuna. The cult of Rudra evolved from a Harappan cult (Pasupati Mahadeva) and hence it was a non-Aryan influence. Vedic religion transformed from the simple polytheism to highly ritualistic and speculative one.

7. Summary

In conclusion it is stated that the tribal polity, pastoral economy, class divided society and the simple and polytheistic religion of the early Vedic period was transformed into organized monarchy, agrarian economy, caste divided society and the sacrificial ritual dominated religion in the later Vedic period. Towards the end of the Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly domination, rituals and cults, especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videha around 600 BCE. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of this socio-economic problem.

Web links

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
• http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/vedic-civilization.html
• http://www.stephen-knapp.com/vedic_culture_hinduism_a_short_introduction.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin
• http://relijournal.com/hinduism/lesson-plan-of-the-day-global-studies-hinduism-hindu-scriptures/
• http://www.indianmirror.com/scriptures/vedas.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranyaka
• http://www.ancient.eu/The_Vedas/
• http://www.timemaps.com/civilization-the-vedic-age
• http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/vedicgods.asp#usha
• http://www.stephen-knapp.com/gods_and_goddesses_of_vedic_culture.htm