24 The Vijayanagara Empire

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The foundation of the empire of Vijayanagara in 1336 CE constitutes a great event in South India in particular and the history of India in general. The decline of the Sultanate of Delhi as an all -India power which started during the later part of the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq gave birth to two mighty states in South India – the Bahmani kingdom of Gulbarga and the empire of Vijayanagara. They came into existence almost simultaneously. The empire of Vijayanagara was founded by Harihara and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama. The Vijayanagara empire was aimed at protecting and promoting the Hindu dharma. It also indirectly prevented the extension of the influence of the Bahmani Kingdom and it’s off shoots in the north, where the power of the Delhi Sultanate had been already considerably weakened, by keeping them constantly engaged in the south.

2. Origin :

The background of the Sangamas is shrouded in obscurity. According to the description contained in the works of Rajakalanirnaya and Vidhyaranyakalagnana, the Vijayanagara empire was founded by Harihara I and Bukka I. There are two traditions connecting them with Andhra as well as Karnataka. The scholars even now differ to which area the Sangama brothers Harihara I and Bukka I were belonged.

They were at first in the service of the Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra II. But after the Muslim conquest of the Kakatiya kingdom in 1323, they went to the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka and became ministers there. When Bahauddin Gurshap, a cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq revolted and took refuge with the Raya of Kampili, the Sultan attacked Kampili and annexed it to the Sultanate. During the course of this war, Harihara and Bukka were made prisoners of war, converted to Islam and taken to Delhi. In 1335, when Tughlaq possessions in the south were in a state of general turmoil, the Sultan released them and sent as commanders of the Tughlaq troops to restore order in the south. This information is known from Nuniz.

After establishing their sway over Kampili first for the Sultan, the two Sangama brothers returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of Saint Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana, the famous commentator on the Vedas. They proclaimed their independence and laid foundation of the city and kingdom of Vijayanagara on the southern bank of the river Tughbhadra facing the fortress of Anegondi on the Northern bank.

As against the Telugu origin some scholars argue that they were of Karnataka origin. Father Heras is of the opinion that the foundation of the city of Anegondi, which formed the cradle of the Vijayanagara empire, was laid by Viraballala III, the Hoyasala king and Harihara who was near relative of the family of Hoyasalas, who was a frontier officer with head quarters there. Therefore, in view of him, Harihara founded the kingdom of Vijayanagara on 18th April 1336, probably enjoying the position of Mahamandleswara under king Hoyasala Ballala III. Thus the Hoyasala theory was attributed to the origin and foundation of the Vijayanagara empire.

Whatever may have been their origins, they could establish themselves as masters in Kampila and its vicinity in 1336 and extended their authority over the parts of South Karnataka and Southern Andhra.

Four dynasties ruled over Vijayanagara empire in succession. They were –

Sangama dynasty	(1336 – 1485)
Saluva dynasty	(1485 – 1505)
Tuluva dynasty	(1503 – 1570)
Aravidu dynasty	(1570 – 1675)

3.  The Sangama dynasty (1336 – 1485):

3. 1 Harihara I (1336 – 1356):

Harihara I was one of the founders and also the first king of the Vijayanagara. The kingdom of Vijayanagara soon expanded into an empire largely through the efforts of Harihara I and Bukka I. In the first instance, the infant Vijayanagara kingdom had to contend with Hoyasala ruler of Mysore and the Sultan of Madurai. The Sultan of Madurai was ambitious and had defeated Hoyasala ruler and executed him in barbarous manner. The dissolution of the Hoyasala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their principality. By 1346 whole of Hoyasala kingdom passed into the hands of Vijayanagara rulers. To celebrate the conquests the kings and their families visited Sringeri, to offer homage to Vidyaranya, the head of Matha.

3.2 Establishment of Bahmani Kingdom :

In the next year the Bahmani kingdom was established, posing new threat to the rising kingdom. The Bahmani kingdom arose out of one of the many revolts that broke in the Tughlaq empire. Hasan Gangu alias Zafar Khan proclaimed independence in 1347, and founded the Bahmani kingdom with the capital at Gulbarga in Karnataka. After coronation Hasan Gangu assumed title of Alauddin Bahmani Shah (1347 – 1358). Bahmani Shah attacked Vijayanagara twice in 1349 and 1354. Hindu sources claim that Harihara I defeated Alauddin, whereas latter styled himself as second Alexander in his coins. The fact however remains that Alauddin’s kingdom extended from Goa in west to Bhuvanagiri east. This was the beginning of the conflict between the Bahmani kingdom and Vijayanagara empire for political dominance of the south and their mutual rivalry ruined them in the long run.

3.3 Bukka I (1356 – 1377):

Harihara was succeeded by his brother Bukka I who took up the task of strengthening and expanding the kingdom. Two important political events happened during his reign. The first one is the Vijayanagara-Bahmani conflict. He fought with the Bahmani sultan Muhammad Shah I and signed a treaty with him, which made him virtual master of the Krishna Tungabhadra Doab.

The reign of Bukka I is famous for the Madura campaign undertaken to overthrow the Madura Sultanate by his son Kumara Kampana in 1371. The details of the campaign are very well recorded in the historical work Maduravijayamu written by Kampana’s wife Gangadevi.

In the field of foreign affairs the most notable act of Bukka I was to send an embassy to China. This is recorded in the annals of Ming dynasty.

3.4 Harihara II (1377 – 1404):

Bukka I, was succeeded by his son Harihara II, consolidated the new kingdom. He continued to wage wars against Bahmanis and the Reddi dynasty. He extended his dominions by the conquest of Kanara, Mysore, Trichinopoly and Kanchi. He waged a war with the Bahmanis for the possession of the Raichur Doab, situated between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers which formed a bone of contention between the two kingdoms. The ports on the west-coast like Goa, Chaul, Dabhol were also captured from the Bahmanis.

3.5 Devaraya I (1406 – 1422):

The accession of Devaraya I is an important event in the Sangama dynasty. The Bahmani ruler Tajuddin Firoz Shah was the contemporary of Devaraya I. He was the greatest of the Bahmani Sultans. Both fought a war and ultimately Firoz scored victory. Devaraya I, at a later date, inflicted a crushing defeat on Firoz Shah and annexed the entire territory upto the mouth of the Krishna River. Devaraya undertook a number of schemes for the welfare of the people.

Towards the close of Devaraya I reign, the Italian traveler Nicolo-de-conti visited Vijayanagara and gave a picturesque description of the city of Vijayanagara.

Devaraya I, was succeeded by his son Ramachandra, ruled for six months only. He was succeeded by his brother Vijaya I. He was a weak ruler, took no interest in the affairs of government and left it to the care of his son and co-regent, Devaraya II.

3.6 Devaraya II (1423 – 1446):

Devaraya II was the greatest sovereign of the Sangama dynasty. He was called Immadi Devaraya and also Proudha Devaraya or the great Devaraya by his subjects. The inscriptions speak of his title Gajabetakara i.e. the elephant hunter.

Devaraya II waged many wars, secured victories and occupied vast regions.

• By 1424 Devaraya annexed the Kondavidu country which had been weak and disorganized after the death of Peda Komati Vema Reddi.
• Devaraya II also defeated the Gajapatis of Orissa.
• He also carried his arms into Kerala, subjugating the ruler of Quilon and other chieftains. The Zamorin of Kozhikode (Calicut) was allowed to remain independent.
• Alauddin II was the Bahmani Sultan and in the initial stages the Vijayanagara forces were beaten very badly by the Bahmani forces. In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in his army and asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the Art of Archery from them. Devaraya II fought three battles against the Bahmanis, but in the end the two parties agreed to the existing boundaries. Thus neither gained advantage over the other.
• Nuniz, a Portuguese writer of 16th century, tell us that the kings of Quilon, Srilanka, Pulicat, Pegu and Tenesserin (Modern Burma and Malaya) paid tribute to Devaraya II.
• The Persian traveler Abdur Razzak, who had travelled widely in and outside India, visited Vijayanagara in the reign of Devaraya II. He gives glorious account of the country. According to him, the Vijayanagara empire extended from Srilanka to Gulbarga and from Orissa to Mabar.

Devaraya II was a great builder and a patron of poets. He himself was an accomplished scholar in Sanskrit. He is credited with the authorship of two Sanskrit works, Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. The exquisite Hazararama temple was built during the reign of Devaraya II.

3.7 Decline of Sangama dynasty :

Devaraya’s long and generally prosperous reign came to an end in 1446. He was succeeded by Vijayalaya II and then very shortly after, his son Mallikarjuna was crowned sometime in 1447. His rule saw the decline of the Sangama dynasty. The weakness of Mallikarjuna was exploited both by Alauddin II, the Bahmani ruler and Kapileswara Gajapati of Orissa.

Virupaksha II was the last ruler of Sangama dynasty. Actually there was confusion in the Vijayanagara empire after the death of Devaraya II. There were a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. The rulers were sunk in pleasure and neglected the affairs of the state. After sometime the throne was usurped by the king’s minister Saluva Narasimha. Thus the Sangama dynasty came to an end and the Saluva dynasty was established. The overthrow of the Sangama dynasty is known as ‘first usurpation’.

4. Saluva dynasty : 1485-1505

4.1 Saluva Narasimha (1485 – 1491) :

The founder of Saluva dynasty was Saluva Narasimha and originally provincial governor of Chandragiri-rajya. The Saluva dynasty lasted two decades from 1485 to 1505. Narasimha, was a capable ruler who recovered most of the territories which had been annexed by the Bahmani Sultans and the Hindu ruler of Orissa.

Narasimha was succeeded on the throne of Vijayanagara by his two sons in quick succession. They were kept under the care of his minister Narasa Nayaka and made him the regent of his kingdom. The elder of the two, Timma was crowned king but was murdered by a rival and so the younger, Immadi Narasimha, was anointed.

4.2 Immadi Narasimha (1491 – 1505)

The regent Narasa Nayaka retained all real powers in his hands and even assumed the royal title. Narasa Nayaka removed Immadi Narasimha to Penugonda and kept him under control himself dominating the scene for over a decade. After his death, his son Vira Narasimha became the regent and continued to keep Immadi Narasimha under tutelage. The lawful king Immadi Narasimha was assassinated in 1505. Vira Narasimha became the actual ruler and started what is known as the Tuluva dynasty.

4.3 Disintegration of Bahmani dynasty :

The Bahmani dynasty gradually expanded and reached its highest power and territorial limits during the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan under Muhmmad Shah III (1463-1482). One of the most difficult problems which faced the Bahmani kingdom was strife among the nobles. The nobles were divided into the long established the Deccanies and the new-comers, who were foreigners. As a new comer, Mahmud Gawan was put hard to win the confidence of Deccanies. Unfortunately, the hostile party carried to the Sultan Muhmmad Shah many tales against Gawan. The result was that the innocent Gawan was executed in 1482. The party strife now even more intense and the governors became independent. Soon the Bahmani kingdom was divided into five principalities: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berer, Golkonda and Bidar. Of these the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda played a leading role in the Deccan politics till their absorption into the Mughal empire.

5. Tuluva dynasty : 1505-1570

5.1 Vira Narasimha (1505 – 1509) :

Vira Narasimha the founder of Tuluva dynasty ruled for a short period. The Usurpation of the Tuluvas must have had his own repercussions. Nuniz says that the whole land revolted under its captains. His authority was defied by some of the provincial governors and the feudatory chiefs. Vira Narasimha had to engage himself in endless warfare against his internal enemies and the Bahmanis. Vira Narasimha maintained cordial relations with the Portuguese with the intention of getting the supply of horses to make his cavalry wing strong. He made munificent gifts to all the important shrines of South India such as Rameswaram, Chidambaram, kanchipuram, Srisailam, Kalahasti, Mahanandi, Kumbhakonam etc. He was succeeded by his half-brother Srikrishnadevaraya.

5.2 Srikrishnadevaraya (1509 – 1529) :

He was the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara and one of the greatest in the history of India. He raised Vijayanagara to the Zenith of its prosperity and glory. The period witnessed success in the political front as well as in cultural fields.

5.2.1 Military conquests:

At the time of Krishnadevaraya’s accession, there was internal trouble in that the Ummattur chief contesting the overlord ship of Mysore. Externally, the Sultan of Bijapur was in the possession of the Raichur Doab. The Gajapati ruler of Orissa had under his control the area from Udayagiri in east coast. In addition to, he had to content with the Portuguese whose power was rapidly going. Within ten years, he succeeded in firmly establishing the authority of Vijayanagara all over the country; there was no thought of revolt and no discontent anywhere within his vast empire.

• Krishnadevaraya’s first task was to repulse the Bahmani forces which invaded his territory. The progress of the Muslim armies was checked and they were defeated. Yusuf Adil Shah was killed in the battle and Bijapur kingdom was thrown into confusion. By his successive conquests, the whole of Raichur Doab passed into the hands of Vijayanagara.
• He successfully invaded Gulburga and Bidar and restored the lawful Bahmani sultan to the throne. To commemorate this act of restoration of the Bahmani monarchy, Krishnadevaraya assumed the title of Yavanarajaya sthapanacharya or restorer of Yavana kingdom. The restoration of the Bahmani kingdom was an act of statesmanship on the part of the Vijayanagara emperor.
• Krishnadevaraya suppressed the rebellious chief of Ummattur. The forts of Srirangapattana and Sivasamudram were besieged and captured.
• The next campaign of Raya was against Prataparudra Gajapati of Orissa who occupied the coastal Andhra area. It was almost a seven year war and finally compelled the Prataparudra the restore to Vijayanagara all the territories upto the River Krishna and concluded with matrimonial alliance.
• When Krishnadevaraya was busy with his campaigns against Prataparudra Gajapati, the Qutub Shahi Sultan of Golkonda made deep in roads into the Vijayanagara empire. Krishnadevaraya defeated the Sultan and occupied many forts in the Telangana.
• Meanwhile Yusuf Adil Shah’s son Ismail Adil Shah recaptured Raichur and this was the reason for the second conflict between the Bijapur ruler and Krishnadevaraya. In 1520, according the Ferishta, a battle was fought on the banks of Krishna in which the Sultan was defeated and Raichur was occupied.
• Krishnadevaraya had friendly relations with the Portuguese who had made their settlements along the western sea coast. Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of Goa, sent a diplomatic-cum-trade mission to Vijayanagara in 1510 and secured many concessions from its monarch.

Thus under Krishnadevaraya, Vijayanagara emerged as the strongest military power in the South. The conditions in Vijayanagara during this period are described by a number of foreign travelers. Paes, an Italian who spent number of years at Srikrishnadevaraya’s court, has given a glorious account of his personality.

5.2.2 Patronage to Art and Literature:

Krishnadevaraya occupies a unique place among the rulers of South India. He was a versatile genius and made his mark as a great warrior, able administrator and liberal patron of Art and Literature.

He patronized Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. He was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’. For Telugu it was the age of great poets and his court Bhuvanavijayam was adorned by eight literary luminaries known as Ashtadiggajas. Allasani Peddana was the greatest and he was often described as “Andhra Kavitha Pithamaha”. Peddana was personally honoured by the emperor for his proficiency in Sanskrit and Telugu. Nandi Timmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushan and Tenalai Ramalinga were the other Lumminaries. Besides the king himself was the author of one Telugu work Amuktamalyada and one Sanskrit work Jambavathi Kalyanam.

Krishnadevaraya was great builder. The Hazara Rama temple the Vitala temple at the capital Hampi is attributed to him. He also built a new city called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother Nagamba.

5.3 Achyuta Raya (1529 – 1542) :

After the death of Krishnadevaraya, his half-brother Achutaraya succeeded him. Achyuta had to repulse the invasion of Ismail Adil Shah for the seizure of the Raichur Doab. He also defeated the Gajapati ruler and the Sultan of Golkonda. The history of Achyutas reign is the subject matter of a Sanskrit work called Achutaramabhyudamu written by Rajanadha Dindima. Achyuta was succeeded by his son Venkata I who ruled for just six months and was succeeded by Sadasivaraya.

5.4 Sadasivaraya (1542 – 1570):

Sadasivaraya was a weak ruler and left the entire administration in the hands of him minister Ramaraya. Ramaraya was an able administrator but very ambitious and tactless. Ramaraya adopted every measure to improve his position and power. In the first instance he destroyed many of the ancient nobility and raised his own family in the highest rank. Ramaraya’s relations with the Portuguese were by no means always friendly.

Ramaraya’s policy towards the Muslim state of Deccan was clumsy and complex. Ramaraya also began to admit large number of Muslims into army. He began to interfere in the quarrels of the Muslim Sultans of Deccan with a view to restore the prestige of Vijayanagara. He could successfully dominate the politics of South India, but on account of his frequent involvement with the affairs of Deccan states he made enemies of all of them. The Deccan Sultans realised clearly that their disunity gave the advantage to Ramaraya. The humiliations of Ahmadnagar and Golkonda persuaded the Deccan Sultans to forget their difference and form a grand alliance against Vijayanagara.

The actual clash between the Sultans and Ramaraya must have started in the year 1564. A series of engagements took place before the final conflict. The decisive battle between two forces took place on January 23rd 1565. The battle was known as ‘Tallikota or Rakshasi Tangadi’.

Ramaraya suffered defeat and was killed in the battle. It is said that 1,00,000 Hindu soldiers were slain during the battle. The Vijayanagara camp was plundered by the Muslim Soldiers. The city of Vijayanagara was mercilessly destroyed. The battle is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagara. Undoubtedly the battle did substantial damage to the Vijayanagara empire, but the empire did not disappear altogether as a result of it. In fact the empire continued to exist until the middle of seventeenth century.

6. Aravidu dynasty :1570-1675

Sadasiva, the puppet ruler of Vijayanagara, had not taken part in the fateful battle of Tallikota. He was deposed by Tirumala, a brother of Ramaraya in 1570., He set up his head quarters at Penugonda and declared himself the king of Vijayanagara. This act of Tirumala inaugurated the rule of Aravidu dynasty. During his short reign he was troubled by the revolting nobles and the invasions of the Sultan of Bijapur. Tirumala was succeeded by Sriranga I, Venkata II, Venkata III and Sriranga II, respectively. They could not provide any stable administration except during the reign of Venkata II (1585-1614). Venkata II made Chandragiri his capital and reorganized the revenue administration. During the reign of Venkata II, the Dutch and the English began to establish their factories on the east coast.

The civil war after the death of Venkata II which lasted for about 15 years provided an opportunity to the Muslim rulers of Bijapur and Golkonda sapped ultimately the strength of the Vijayanagara empire. The last ruler of Vijayanagara kingdom was Sriranga III. His sovereignty was not acknowledged by the Nayaks of South. During this period, taking advantage of the weakness of the central government, their subordinates, such as the Nayakas of Tanjavur, Madhura, Gingee etc., declared their independence.

7.  Contribution of the Vijayanagara empire :

7. 1 Polity :

The Rayas of Vijayanagara established an administrative system which was suitable to the needs of those times by respecting the traditional system. It is characterized by strong centre with a scheme of decentralization. In theory and practice monarchy was the main characteristic of the Vijayanagara polity. Emperor was the head of the administration. He enjoyed immense civil, military and judicial powers. The kings had an enlightened conception of their duties and responsibilities as the head of the Government. The fundamental duty of the Vijayanagara king was to provide security to all his subjects and redress their grievance. Krishnadevaraya in his Amuktamalada clearly defines the duties of the king.

The Vijayanagara rulers were aided and advised in the discharge of Rayal functions by a council of Ministers, governors, military warriors, Brahmin priests, scholars and artists. The Vijayanagara emperors maintained council of Ministers.The office of the minister was sometimes hereditary. The empire was divided into several administrative units. The biggest unit was the province. The provinces were in turn divided into Nadu, Sima, Sthala and Grama. The Grama (Village) was the basic unit of administration. The Reddi was incharge of the law and order where as the Karanam had to keep detailed account of the village land.

7.2 Revenue Administration:

Land revenue was the main source of income of the Vijayanagara state. It had an efficient system of land revenue administration under the department called Athavane. The Vijayanagara rulers took considerable interest in the development of agriculture and in improving irrigational facilities. In addition to the land revenue the state used to collect various taxes like grazing tax, marriage tax, tax on gardens and mines, professional taxes, customs duties, tolls on roads etc.

7.3 Judicial Administration :

Abdur Razzack the Persian envoy, gives some interesting information regarding the judicial administration of the Vijayanagara. The king was the highest court of appeal. In all important cases his word was final. The administration of criminal law was very severe. Regarding punishments, theft, adultery and treason were punished with death and the mutilation of limbs. The Nayaks and Gaundas were empowered to settle the cases in their respective jurisdiction. Sometimes the disputes were settled by the state officials with cooperation of the local bodies like the village panchayats and guilds.

7.4 Army :

The military organization of the Vijayanagara period was under the department called “Kandachari”. It was kept under the control of Dandanayaka or the commander-in-chief. The Vijayanagara emperors took sufficient care in maintaining very strong and efficient army because they were very often attacked by the Sultans of Deccan, the Gajapati kings of Orissa and also troubled by their refractory nobles. The Vijayanagara army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephantry, camels and artillery.

High-breed horses were procured from foreign traders. The Army of Vijayanagara was trained by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Italians. Fortress played a large part in the defense organization and the Arts of seize were well known and exclusively practiced. Another important aspect of the Vijayanagara military organization was the nayankara system.

7.5 Society :

Hindus constituted the bulk of the population under the Vijayanagara rule although a fairly large number of Muslims and jews besides some European traders and businessmen also enjoyed happy and comfortable lives under the benevolent rule of the Hindu monarchs. The traditional four-fold division of the society into Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras continued without any changes in the Vijayanagara age. The kings of the age tried their best to preserve the varna system.

Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendor of the buildings and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagara. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were available plenty and used by the people.

One of the most important features of the social life was spending their peaceful time in the celebration of festivals and amusements. Dancing, Music, Wrestling, gambling and cock fights were some of their amusements.

It appears that during the Vijayanagara period women occupied high position in the society. They took leading part in the social, political and religious life of the period. Some of the women were learned. According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed in Royal palaces as dancers and domestic servants. Devadasi system was an important social institution existed during the Vijayanagara empire. The child marriages were common. Huge dowries were demanded at the time of marriage. The sati system was in vogue and it was sanctioned by the Brahmanas.

The Vijayanagara kings followed the policy of religious toleration. The Sangama rulers were Saivites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But the other dynasties were Vaishanavites. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. Barbosa states that Krishnadevaraya treated Saivites, Vaishnavites, Jains, Chiristians, Jews and Moors with kindness compassion and affection. Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build Mosques and worship.

7.6 Literature :

The monarchs of Vijayanagara were great patrons of education and learning. It witnessed tremendous growth and development of Dravidian languages – Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam besides Sanskrit. The reign of Krishnadevaraya was a glorious epoch in the literary activity of the Vijayanagara period. Krishnadevaraya’s court was adorned by eight literary luminaries known as Ashtadiggajas.

7.7 Architecture, Art and Painting :

The Vijayanagara age witnessed remarkable development in architecture, art and painting. The ruins of the old capital of the empire, Hampi proclaim to the world that the Vijayanagara emperors were great builders.

The Vijayanagara temples are generally sumptuous, lofty, imposing and grand in layout, design and conception. They are provided with several architectural adjuncts like pillared mandapas, Kalayanamandapas, prakara walls with pillared corridors, separate shrines for gods and goddess, subsidiary shrines for the Parivara devatas and lofty gopura-dwaras.

The most important temples of the Vijayanagara style were found in the Hampi. Vittalaswamy and Hazara Rama temples were the best examples of this style. The Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchi stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture. The metal images of Srikrishnadevaraya and his queens at Tirumala are examples of costing of metal images.

The art of painting also received due recognition and patronage at the hands of the Vijayanagara emperors. The best preserved paintings are found in the Virabhadraswmi temple at Lepakshi.

8. Summary :

The Viajayanagara period is one of the brilliant chapters and also represents the last great Hindu phase in the annals of India. The empire at its zenith, embraced the whole of south India and some parts of the Deccan. It is known from the inscriptions, literary works and the information given by the foreign travelers that the Vijayanagara kings organized sound and solid administration, developed agriculture, observed religious toleration, fostered trade and industry, promoted literature, art, architecture and painting.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire
• http://historyofindia-madhunimkar.blogspot.in/2009/09/vijaynagar-kingdom.html
• http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaVijayanagar.htm
• http://hampi.in/history-of-vijayanagara
• http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/vijayanagaradynasty.html
• http://www.importantindia.com/9555/vijayanagara-empire/