12 The sangam age

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The Sangam age constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India. Towards the end of the first millennium BCE, history of South India moved from pre-history to history. Literary Ashokan records reflected contemporary events. The advent of the early historic period in South India is generally dated to the 3rd Century BCE. Inscriptions refer to the people of South India as Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras-the crucible of the culture of Tamilakam. Tamilakam is the home of the Tamils-the land where Tamil was the language. The geographical limits of Tamilakam were Vengadam (i.e, the Tirupati Hills) in the north, Kumari in the south and the sea on the east and west. Kumari is said to refer, not to Cape Comorin, but to a river of that name, now lost in the Indian Ocean. This region comprised of the modern territories of Kerala, Tamilnadu and the Union territory of Pondicherry.

2. Sangam Literature

Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. The history of Tamil literature has to begin necessarily with an account of the ‘Sangams’ (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil popularly called as Muchchangam. They flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas in Madurai. The ‘ Sangam Age’ in Tamil literature was, a period of great literary glory. It saw the production of a colossal volume of Tamil poetry in its pristine purity. Works were produced in every department of knowledge. Most of them are now not available.

The Sangam corpus is a collection of anthologies of poetry on themes popular among these early societies. The term Sangam was first referred to by Tirunavukkarasu Nayanar (Appar), the Saiva saint belonging to the early seventh century CE. The next reference is to be found in the commentary to the Iraiyanar Ahapporul belonging to the ninth century CE. This text talks about three successive Sangams i.e. first Sangam or Talai Sangam, middle Sangam or Idai Sangam and last Sangam or Kadai Sangam.

The first Sangam had its seat in old Madurai now submerged in Indian ocean. It is believed that the first Sangam was attended by gods and legendary sages, but all works have perished, no less than 4,499 authors submitted their writings to the Sangam and obtained its approval. Eighty nine Pandyan kings, seven of them poets, patronised the first Sangam which lasted for 4400 years. The standard works of the first Sangam were Agattiyam, Paripadal, Mudanarai, Mudukuruku and Kalariavirai.

The second Sangam had its seat in another submerged town called Kapatapuram. It was attended by 3700 poets, and received the support of fifty nine Pandyan kings and flourished in unbroken continuity for 3700 years. The works of the second Sangam are also now lost except Tolkappiyam, the great Tamil grammar attributed to Tolkappiyar, one of Agastya’s twelve direct disciples.

The third Sangam had its seat in Northern Madura founded by Mudatirumaran. Its membership totaled forty nine, but 449 poets submitted their works to it for approval. Forty nine Pandyan kings patronised it and continued for 1850 years. While many of the works produced in this Sangam are lost, some have fortunately survived to give modern readers an idea of the richness and variety of Sangam literature.

2.1 Important Sangam works

Some of the principal works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the shape of anthologies. Of these three are famous. Pathuppattu (the ten Idylls), Ettuthogai (the eight Collections) and Padinenkilkanakku (the eighteen Minor Didactic Poems). Ettuthogai and Pathuppattu are the two major groups of texts included in the corpus of Sangam literature.

The group Ettuthogai consists of

10. Malaipadukanji.

The Ettuthogai and Pattuppattu are together grouped as Melkanakku for they contain stanzas composed of meter which permits a larger number of lines. On the other hand the Padinenkilkanakku (eighteen minor works) are called ‘Minor Works’ not because their significance is minor, but because the poems in these are shorter in form than those in the Ettuthogai or Pattuppattu. One of these ‘ minor’ didactic poems is the world famous classic, Tiruvalluvar’s Kural, which is indeed one of the cornerstones of Tamil literature. It is a touch stone of taste and an invaluable guide to the art of good living.

2.2 The Epics

The five major epics are Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka Chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakesi. Of these, only the first three are now available. Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are considered as great accomplishments of Tamil poetry.

2.2.1 Silappadikaram

It was the earliest and greatest of the epics of the Sangam Age. It was written by Ilango Adigal, the younger brother of the celebrated Cheran Senguttuvan, who became a monk in order to allay the fears of Senguttuvan, the reigning king. It is the tragic story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar who falls in love with a dancer, Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. However, Kannagi revenges the death of her husband in the hands of the Pandyan king and becomes a goddess. It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or Pattini cult, the worship of the goddess of Chastity. It contains a great deal of social and historical information about the Sangam Age.

2.2.2 Manimekalai

It was a sequel to Silappadikaram. It was written by Sittalai Sattanar of Madura. It deals with the adventures of the daughter born of Kovalan and Madhavi though this epic is more religious than literary interest. She consecrated herself to the service of Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. It contained a good deal of social and historical information. It was the only important ancient works which throw light on the development of the fine arts during the Sangam age. It is claimed in the prologues to these two epics that the authors were the friends and contemporaries of the Chera king, Senguttavan.

2.2.3 Jivaka Chintamani

It was the work of Tiruttakkadevar, perhaps a young Chola convert to the Jain faith.

2.3 Other sources

Tamil literary works are sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam age. In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, mention the commercial contacts between the West and the South India. Pandyas was the first of the South Indian kingdoms mentioned by Megasthenes. The Ashokan inscriptions mention the Pandya, Chola and Chera as neighbours on the south of the Mauryan empire. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela refers to the kingdoms of the Tamil country. The excavations at Arikamedu, Poompuhar, Kudumanal, and other places reveal the overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.

2.4 Period of Sangam literature

The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a debated topic. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabahu II of Srilanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed by Silappadikaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. Besides, Roman coins issued by the Roman emperors of first century CE were found in plenty in various places of Tamil country. Therefore, the most probable date of Sangam literature has been fixed between 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

3. Political History

The Tamil country during the Sangam age was ruled by three dynasties namely Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The political history of these dynasties is traced from the literary references. There was frequent conflict between the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, which gave ample scope for compositions on war and love by the poets.

3.1. Cheras

The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji or Karur. The Pugalur inscription of 1st century refers to three generation of Chera rulers. Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralanathan, Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralanathan and Cheran Senguttavan were the famous rulers of the dynasty.

One of the earliest and better known Chera rulers was Udhiyan Cheralanathan(Udiyanjeral).

He had the title Vanavaramban – one whose kingdom is bounded by the sky or ‘by the sea’.

He was succeeded by his son Nedun Cheralanathan ( Nedunjeral Aden). He is also praised as having set his bow on the slope of the Himalayas so that his power was known from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas. This is why he is known as Imayavaramban.

The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Senguttuvan of second century BCE. He was known as Red Chera and was a contemporary of the poet Paranar, one of the most celebrated and longest lived poets of the Sangam age. He is said to have got a stone from the Himalayas to make an idol of the Goddess Kannagi. According to Silappadikaram he was the founder of the famous Pattini cult. This function was attended by king Gajabahu of Srilanka. Senguttavan was succeeded by his half brother Perunjeral Adan. He was the contemporary of the great Chola king Karikala.

3.2. Cholas

The Chola kingdom of Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchy district to Southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was located first at Uraiyur and later shifted to Puhar (identified as Kaveripattinam). The Chola dominion came to be known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam. Elara was the first important Chola king. He conquered Srilanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years.

Karikala the ‘man with charred leg’ was the famous king of the Sangam-Cholas. He was a very competent ruler and a great warrior. Karikala is associated with many heroic exploits. Pattupattu describes how he was deposed and imprisoned, early in his reign, how he escaped and re-established himself as king. He fought and defeated the combined forces of the Pandyas, the Cheras and eleven minor chieftains in the battle of Venni. Vahaiparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Karikala succeeded over many contemporary kings and chieftains. Karikala maintained a powerful navy and conquered Srilanka. From there he brought a large number of prisoners of war for building a huge embankment of 160 km to tame the Kavery river. He made Puhar or Kaveripattinam an important port and an alternative capital of the Chola kingdom. Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole of the Tamil country. He was responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them under cultivation, which improved prosperity of the people.

After the death of Karikala, his dominion was steeped in utter confusion. Due to domestic strife in the Chola family, in later times, the Chola kingdom was racked by a protracted and bitter war between two contenders for the throne – Nalangilli and Nedungilli. With the rise of the Pallavas, Cholas became only a marginal force in South India.

3.3. Pandyas

The Pandyas ruled over Southern Tamilnadu. Their capital was Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were Neduncheliyan(Nediyon), Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Mudathimaran. There were two Neduncheliyans. The first was known as Ayyappudai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the execution of Kovalan, hero of the Silappadikaram, He is said to have died of remorse because of his role in the tragic turn of events.

The other was Talaiyalangattu Cheruvara Neduncheliyan, who won the battle at Talaiyalangam. It is said that he defeated a confederacy of Cholas, Cheras, and five chieftains at a battle at Talaiyalangam while he was still very young. He also conquered territory from other chieftains.

Many later Pandyan rulers are mentioned in the Sangam literature, but it is not possible to establish either their chronology or verify their exploits. The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan rule during the Sangam age began to decline due to the invasion of Kalabhras. Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandyan country including the flourishing seaport of Korkai. The Sangam poets also eulogized various chieftains such as Ay, Andiran and Pari for their bravery and generosity.

4.  Cultural History

4.1 Polity:

The Chera, Chola and Pandya kings were known as vendar [crowned kings]. These great kings had their special insignia of royalty such as the staff, drum and umbrella. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem-Carp (Fish) for the Pandyas, Tiger for the Cholas and Bow for the Cheras. The kings assumed several titles. The king’s birthday was celebrated every year and the day was called Perunal, the great day. Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government during the Sangam period. Disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown. The imperial court (avai) was attended by a number of chiefs as well as several officials. The Sabha or manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The Sangam rulers were famous for impartiality in the administration of justice.

The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were 1. Ministers (Amaichchar) 2. Priests (Purohitar) 3. Army chiefs (Senapatiyar) 4. Envoys (Dutars) and 5. Spies (Orrar). The kings bestowed titles and honours on their subordinates in recognition of their performance. The military administration was also efficiently organised during the Sangam period. The rulers maintained a regular army consisting of Chariots, cavalry, infantry and elephants. Each ruler had his respective Kodimaram [tutelary deity].

The most important source of revenue was land tax. It was called irai or karai. Tributes paid by the feudatories were other sources of income. Foreign trade was important and customs duties formed bulk of the budget. The Pattinapalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury. Internal transit duties on merchandise moving from place to place were another source of revenue and the roads were guarded night and day by soldiers to prevent smuggling.

4.2. Society:

The most relevant socio-economic aspect of the anthologies is their concept of tinai, physiographic division. According to which Tamilakam consisted of five tinais. i.e. kurinji (hills), palai (drylands), mullai (jungles), marudam (plains) and neydal (coast). People of these five divisions had their respective chief occupations and gods.

Physiographic Divisional	Chief deity	Occupation
Kurinji (hills)	Murugan	Hunting, Honey collection
Mullai (jungles)	Mayon[Vishnu]	Cattle rearing and shifting agriculture
Marudam (plains)	Indra	Agriculture
Neydal (coast)	Varuna	Fishing and Salt manufacturing
Palai (drylands)	Korravai	Plunder and Cattle lifting [Robbery]

Tolkappiyam refers to four castes namely avasar [ruling class], anthanar [polity and religion], vanigar [trade and commerce], vellalar [agriculturist]. Sangam period witnessed the appearance of the Brahmins as a regular varna as also their growing influence. They were patronized by the kings. The kshatriyas and Vaishyas were absent as regular varnas at this time, but warriors and mechanist were to be found as separate classes. The fourth class was that of the agriculturists called Vallalas. They held the bulk of the land. Besides, there were some minor classes such as the Kadaisiyar (agricultural labours), malavar (robbers), eyinar (hunters) and pulaiyans (rope-makers). Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, and Nagas lived in this period.

4.3. Economy

Agriculture was the most important occupation, the land was fertile and it was irrigated from river water and water from tanks. Paddy, ginger, pepper, sugarcane, cotton, horse gram, and many other cereals of coarse variety are the main agricultural products. Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country. Trade in general and maritime trade in particular was an area of activity which contributed to the wealth of Tamilakam. There were big sea ports which served as centres of trade. The port of Korkai was famous for export of pearls. Karur was a centre of Roman trade in Chera state. Uraiyur and Madurai was the main centre of textile industry. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musuri, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. External trade was carried between South India and Greek Kingdoms.

After the ascendency of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance. The author of Periplus provides most valuable information on foreign trade. Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman emperors like Augustus, Tiberious and Nero were found in all parts of Tamilnadu. They reveal the extent of the trade and presence of Roman traders in the Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.

4.4. Religion

Brahmanism began to make its inroads into South India with kings performing Vedic sacrifices and the higher classes adopting Vedic gods. Several poems refer to the king performance of vedic sacrifices. The Brahmins held high position in the society. The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil god. The worship of Murugan (Subrahmanya) and the legendary achievements of that deity are often alluded to in the contemporary literature. The hunters of the hill tracts worshipped Murugan as the God of the hillock. Indra, God of Marudam, was worshipped by the agriculturists. There was a special festival instituted in Puhar in honour of Indra. Other gods known were the three eyed god (Siva), Varuna, Kubera, Yama, Tirumala, Balaram etc. Devavrinda was a term used to describe a group of five gods, viz, Murugan, Siva, Krishna, Balaram and Indra. Apart from performing different rituals the people also built temples for different gods. During the Sangam Age, Buddhism and Jainism also flourished together, but were subordinate to the Brahmanical Vedic religion. They were aware of certain spiritual and philosophical truths, such as concepts of body and soul, superiority of destiny, dying for a noble cause and so on.

4.5. Position of Women

There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women. Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Tolkappiyam and the Kalaviyal say that the Aryans introduced the rituals and ceremonies of marriage. These works also mention the spontaneous coming together of the sexes (kamakkuttam), they distinguish secret marriage (kalavu) from the open alliance contracted with the consent of parents (karpu). The Tamils had also names for unilateral love (kaikkilai) and improper love (perundinai). However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of the society. The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.

4.6. Fine Arts

Poetry, music and dancing were quite popular among the Sangam people. The poets were men and women drawn from all classes of society and were often regarded generously. The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and dances. Music and dance filled a good part of the spare time of men and women. Travelling troops of dances carried yal (lute), padabi (one-sided drum) and other stringed percussion instruments in specially made bags. The dances of Viralis (professional dancing girls) took place at night. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed. Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

5. Summary

Towards the end of 3rd century CE, the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. Sangam period was the period of transition from chiefdoms to kingdoms, with the formation of states. The ending of the chiefdoms is attributed to the hostilities with the Kalabhras. Disputes about the stratification of the Sangam texts may remain unsolved for many years to come. However, the early Tamil literature was closer to the realities of life.

Web links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam_period
http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=727
http://holisticthought.com/political-history-of-the-sangam-age-the-chera-chola-and-pandyas/
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/history-sangam.htm
http://know-your-heritage.blogspot.in/2013/12/sangam-period-in-south-indian-history_8.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_history_from_Sangam_literature
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_of_ancient_Tamil_history#Literary_sources_in_Tamil
http://www.visitkanchi.org/Sangam.html
http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/sangam_age/chola_kingdom_in_sangam_age.php
http://tnpsctutorial.blogspot.in/2013/09/tamil-nadu-history-sangam-age.html