21 The khilji (khalji) dynasty (1290 – 1320)

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The Khilji dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkish origin. The advent of the Khilji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India. Jalaluddin Firoj Khilji was the founder and became second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. Khiljis were vassals of the Slave / Mamluk dynasty and served the Sultan of Delhi, during the reign of Balban. At first Jalauddin entered the services of Balban as the head of the royal body guard. Jalaluddin served as the warden of the marches in the north-west and had fought many successful expeditions against the Mongols. Balban’s successors were murdered, and the Slave dynasty succumbed to the factional conflicts within the Slave dynasty and the Muslim nobility. As the struggle between the factions razed, Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji led a coup and murdered the 17 year old Mamluk successor Kaiqubad, the last ruler of Slave dynasty.

The Khilji revolution marked the overthrow of the Slave dynasty and the establishment of the rule of Khilji dynasty in 1290. Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji was accepted as Sultan by a faction of Muslim amirs of Turkish, Persian, Arabic factions and Indian-Muslim aristocrats. It inaugurated an era of ceaseless conquests, unique experiments in the state craft and of incomparable literary activity. The brief period of Khilji rule, saw important changes in the socio-economic and administrative structure of the Delhi sultanate.

2. Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-1296)

Jalaluddin was an old man of seventy when he occupied the throne. During his six years reign some of the Balban’s officers revolted due to his assumption of power and subsequent sidelining of nobility and commanders serving the Slave dynasty. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the majority of the people. He followed the policy of peace. This resulted in many revolts that were started by the refractory nobles and nefarious Rajputs. Malik Chajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of kara. He challenged the claim of Jalaluddin and raised a standard revolt. He suppressed the revolt and he was pardoned. When the Thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning. In 1292 when Malik Chajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his son-in-law Junakhan. Thus, there was no law and order in the Delhi Sultanate. He was murded by his nephew Junakhan (Alauddin Khilji) in 1296.

3. Alauddin Khilji (1296 – 1316)

Alauddin was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin. Jalaluddin, out of compassion and affection, made Alaluddin as the governor of Kara. It was here that the seeds of ambition were sown in Alauddin’s mind. It might be said that the domestic unhappiness due to the intrigues of his mother-in-law and wife, made him inclined to establish power and influence independent of the Delhi court. Alauddin had accumulated a vast treasure by invading Devagiri in the Deccan. Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara in the hope of getting hold of this treasure. During the reception there Alauddin Khilji treacherously murdered his father in law. Jalaluddin, then assumed the power as Sultan. Alauddin successfully captured power, but he faced a series of problems. He faced all the difficulties with great vigor and determination and came out successful. He won over most of the nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. Alauddin adopted methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness to overawe his opponents. Most of the nobles who had defected to him by lure of gold were either killed or dismissed and their properties confiscated. Severe punishments were given to the rebellious members of his own family.

Alauddin Khilji was a great imperialist. Within a span of 20 years, the armies of the Delhi Sultanate not only brought Gujarat and Malwa under their control and subdued most of the princes of the Rajasthan. They also overran the Deccan and South India upto Madurai. In due course, an attempt was made to bring this vast area under the direct administrative control of Delhi. In his conquests, he was greatly helped by his four trusted generals viz., Ulugh Khan, Zafar Khan, Nasrat Khan and Alap Khan.

3.1 Mongol policy

Alauddin Khilji had to face more than six Mongol invasions. The first two were successful. But the third Mongol invader Khwaja came upto Delhi but they were prevented from entering the capital Delhi. The next three Mongol invasions were dealt with severely.

The seriousness of the Mongol invasions forced Alauddin to follow certain effective measures. In this connection not only the old forts in the Punjab, Multan and Sindh were repaired but also new forts were built. These forts were garrisoned and adequately equipped with troops. The most capable and trusted generals were placed in charge of these forts. New workshops were established to manufacture weapons and to produce them in large quantity. A highly efficient spy system was introduced and this enabled the Sultan to get information regarding the latest activities of the Mongols in the north-western frontier. Further, he raised a very huge and centrally organized army. Thus he struck terror in the hearts of the Mongols by inflicting the most barbaric and brutal punishments. He resorted to wholesale massacre of Mongols. In this connection Ferishta states that all the Mongols women and children were taken as captives. They were sent to different parts of the kingdom and were sold in the market as slaves. It was in one of these raids, the great general Zafar Khan was killed and on one of the occasions even Alauddin took shelter in the Fort of Siri. The last Mongol invasion was severely put down in general Ghazi Malik and thereafter Mongols ceased their raids. Thus the Mongol policy of Alluddin succeeded in achieving the desired results.

3.2 Conquest of Rajput States

3.2.1 Gujarat

Alauddin had strong reasons for coveting Malwa and Gujarat. Alauddin sent an army early in 1299 under the command of his leading generals Nasrat Khan and Ulagh Khan to conquer Gujarat. Alauddin’s army besieged Anhilwara, the capital of Raja Karan. The king Raja Karan and his daughter escaped and took shelter at Devagiri. All his woman and treasures including beautiful chief queen Kamala Devi were captured by the Turkhs.

The chief cities of Gujarat where many beautiful temples and buildings had been built over generations were sacked. The famous temple of Somanath which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century was also plundered and sacked.

• The conquest of Gujarat had historical, economic and romantic importance.
• Historically the power of Sultan extended towards western India.
• Economically, enabled the Sultan to establish his authority over flourishing sea ports and also gained an outlet to the Arabian Sea.
• Alauddin very much attracted to the classical charm and the royal dignity of Kamaladevi the queen of Karnadeva. He married her with great pomp and even made her as his chief Queen.
• Kafur, Hindu turned Muslim eunuch, was also taken to Delhi as captive, later he became the commander in chief of the Sultan’s army and was the name and fame to Alauddin.

3.2.2 Ranathambhor

The Rajput state of Ranathambhor became next target of attack. Hamir Deva of Chauhan family was the Rajput ruler of the state. The cause for attack was that the Rajput ruler gave shelter to some Mongol fugitives who had revolted during the Sultan’s Gujarat campaign. Alauddin sent messages to Hamir Deva to kill or expel the Mongol nobles. But Hamir Deva, with a high sense of dignity and obligation to those who had sought refuge with him, sent haughty replies. Alauddin dispatched an army in 1301 CE. commanded by Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan. Nusrat Khan was killed, finally, Alauddin himself had to march against Ranathambhor. The famous poet, Amir Khusrau, who went along with Alauddin, has given a graphic description of the fort and its investment. After three months of close siege, the fearful Jauhar (self immolation) ceremony took place to fight to the last. All the Mongols, too, died fighting with the Rajputs. The fort was captured through the treachery of Ranmal, the minister of Hamir Deva, who was won over by the Sultan with the promise of valuable presents and high office. Alauddin, after the conquest of Ranathambhor, ordered Ranmal and his followers to be put to death for having betrayed their own ruler and people.

3.2.3 Mewar

The conquest of Ranathambhor was followed by the attack of Chittor, the capital of Mewar. Mewar was the most powerful state in Rajasthan. Its ruler was Ratan Singh. It is known from Malik Muhammed Jayasi’s work, Padmavati, that the cause for the attack of Chittor was to acquire Padmini – the peerless queen of Ratan Singh. However, many modern historians do not accept this legend because it is mentioned for the first time more than a hundred years later. Alauddin himself marched against Chittor. The Rajputs fought valiantly, but finally the ruler, Raja Ratan Singh submitted. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort.

Alauddin occupied Mewar, but he could not possess Padmini. After the death of Ratan Singh in the battle field, his queen Padmini burnt herself along with the other Rajput ladies on the funeral pyre. Chittor was assigned to Alauddin’s minor son, Khizr Khan and a Muslim garrison was posted in the fort. After some time, its charge was handed over to a cousin of Ratan Singh.

The conquest of Gujarat, Ranathambhor and Mewar literally broke the back of Rajput power and resistance in North India. Thus, the Sultan’s army easily conquered Malwa. All the important cities of Malwa like Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar, Champaner etc., fell flat at the feet of the forces of the Sultan. After this, Alauddin also conquered Jalor, another Rajput state.

The lack of unity among the Rajputs and their failure to present a united front to check the armies of the Sultan were the most important causes for the defeat of the Rajputs. The Sultan goy satisfied with establishing his over lordship over the Rajput chiefs, since he wished essentially to ensure communication between Delhi and Gujarat.

3.3 Deccan and South Indian expeditions

Alauddin’s greatest achievement was the conquest of the Deccan and the far south, which were ruled by three important Hindu dynasties. The Kakatiyas of Warangal, The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and The Pandyas of Madurai were the rulers of south India. There existed an atmosphere of animosity between these rulers. This lack of unity amongst the south Indian rulers was exploited by Alauddin Khilji to a very great extent. Alauddin did not annex their territories but forced them to pay annual tributes.

The court poet of Alauddin, Amir Khusrau, made them the subject of his work. These campaigns reflected boldness, self confidence and high degree of a spirit of advance on the part of Delhi ruler.

• In 1302-1303 an army was sent against Prataparudradeva II of Warangal, who, however, succeeded in defeating the invaders.
• In 1306 – 1307 he sent Malik Kafur to chastise Raja Ramachandradeva of Devagiri for withholding tribute. After a feeble resistance Ramachandradeva surrendered and agreed to pay yearly tribute.
• Again in 1309 Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal, Prataparudradeva II, ultimately surrendered and an enormous booty was collected.
• Malik Kafur’s next target was the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III. Raja Vira Ballal III was taken by surprise and agreed to become the Sultan’s vassal. Here also vast quantities of booty were seized.
• Kafur next marched against the Pandyan kingdom. Its ruler Vira Pandya fled from the capital, enabling Kafur to seize immense booty and returned to Delhi.
• Kafur was able to force the South Indian rulers to sue for peace, to surrender all their treasures, elephants and to promise to pay an annual tribute. Kafur was accorded a royal welcome and was made the Malik Naib.

Alauddin’ s South Indian campaigns had some significant results. Alauddin was the first Sultan in the history of India to establish his sway over north India, Deccan and South India. It paved the way not only for the spread of Islam but also for the cultural diffusion from North to South and vice versa. It improved the transport and communication facilities from north India to south India. Alauddin’ s campaigns also helped for the spread of Bhakti movement from south India to north India and Sufi movement from north India to South India.

3.4 Alauddin’s theory of Kingship

Alauddin was not only a great victorious general but also an able and efficient genius. Alauddin Khilji was the first Mulslim ruler of India to make a bold experiment in administration. The reign of Alauddin marks the highest point of the Sultanate political power. Regarding the power of Sultan, his policy displayed an independent attitude which was unique among the rulers of Sultanate.

In his conception of sovereignty, Alauddin departed from the ideas of his predecessors. He had the courage to challenge, for the first time in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, the pre-eminence of the Orthodox in matters of State and declare that he could act without the guidance of the Ulemas. Thus, Alauddin separated politics from religion and vice versa. This does not mean he disregarded Islam. Alauddin did not consider it necessary to get the sanction of Khalifa to add to his authority and no wonder he did not apply for an investiture from the Khalifa. This shows that he did not recognize Khalifa as his temporal and spiritual head.

He revived Balban’s theory of divine rights of kingship and declared himself to be the Zili Ilahi – the Shadow of God on Earth. Alauddin’s theory of kingship revolves round the dictum that the “kingship knows no kinship”.

Alauddin himself said “I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful, whatever of thought to be for the good of the State, or suitable for the emergency, that I decree” Alauddin cared only for loyalty and efficiency at the time of offering a responsible post to a person. He neither bothered about the race or the genealogy of the person. He also paid salaries to the officers in cash, but not land assignments. He maintained a centralized administration.

Alauddin framed a series of regulation to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him. They were forbidden to hold banquets or festivities or to form marriage alliances without the permission of the Sultan. To discourage festive occasions, he banned the consumption of wines and intoxicants. By these harsh methods, Alauddin cowed down the nobles and made them completely subservient to the crown. No further rebellions took place during his life time. But, in the long run, his methods proved harmful to the dynasty.

3.4.1 Army

The Sultan could not realize his imperialistic ambitions without a well equipped and efficient standing army. Ferishta says that he recruited 4,75,000 men for his cavalry. His military reforms included introduction of ‘dagh’ (branding of horses) and ‘Chahra’ (descriptive roll of soldiers) and insistence on a regular muster of the army. He paid decent salaries to the soldiers and never gave them land assignments like Iltutmish and Balban. It was with the intention of maintaining a large army and to make the soldiers lead a relatively comfortable life Alauddin introduced his famous market regulations. Alauddin established a militaristic regime. He based his kingship on military power and force. He did not claim sovereignty on the basis of hereditary or election by the nobles or by the sanction of Khalifa. He knew full well that he had usurped the power and the same could be maintained by force.

3.4.2 Agrarian Policy

In the medieval India land became an invaluable economic commodity and also the main source of income to the rulers. Alauddin was the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate who introduced the survey and measurement of land as the basis for the assessment of the State demand. The ‘Biswa’ was declared as the standard unit of measurement. He reorganized the revenue department and created the office of ‘Mustakraj’ . He created a new set of revenue officials. A large number of accountants, collectors, and agents were hired to administer the system. Their main duty was to collect the land revenue from the peasants directly. These officials were well-paid but were subject to severe punishment if found to be taking bribes. The Sultan increased the salaries of the revenue officials to check corruption among them. Alauddin, though collected half of the produce as State’s share, took adequate measures to safeguard the interests of the peasants from the exploitation of the corrupt revenue officials. Alauddin was the first Sultan of Delhi who maintained direct contacts with the peasants.

3.4.3 Market Reforms

Alauddin was the first Muslim emperor of India to make bold experiments in the administration. One of the experiments was the market reforms introduced with an express desire of controlling the prices. The introduction of paying salaries in the cash to the soldiers led to price regulations. There is no unanimity of opinion amongst historians regarding the motive of the Sultan on his economic reforms.

Alauddin, after his return from Chittor campaign in the year 1311, sought to control the prices of all the commodities from food grains, sugar and cooking oil to a needle and from costly imported cloth to horses, cattle, slave boys and girls, concubines, and various kinds of articles of general merchandise including such articles as bread and vegetables.

As a further step, the State itself setup warehouses for food grains which were released whenever there was a famine or a threat of a short fall in supply. Alauddin kept himself constantly informed of everything and very harsh punishments were given if any shop keeper charged a higher price or tried to cheat by using false weights and measures, control of the prices of horses was important for the Sultan because without the supply of good horses at reasonable prices to the army, the efficiency of the army could not be maintained.

Alauddin with the help of the sagacious advisers evolved a salary system in conformity with comfortable standard of living of the various grades and categories of soldiers. Alauddin then created a government market called Sarai Adil, near the Badaun gate. For the sake of catering the needs of the consumers, the sultan set up three markets. The first market was reserved for food grains. The second market was reserved for the horses, slaves, cattle concubines etc. The third market was meant for costly articles such as foreign cloth, aromatics, furniture and the other articles of luxury.

The Sarai Adil and the subsidiary markets were kept under the control of an officer known as Shahna-i-Mandi. He was given a contingent of cavalry, infantry and a suitable jagir for his maintenance. He was assisted by subordinate officers known as ‘Shahanas’. But ‘Shahna-i-Mandi’ and ‘Shahanas’ were under the control of ‘Diwan-i-risalat’, the minister of commerce.

The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store houses. Regulations were issued to fix price for all commodities. Every merchant was registered under the market department. There were secret agents called ‘Munhiyans’ who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets. The sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices. Violation of regulations was severely punished. Even during the famine the same price was maintained. He was ultimately responsible for the successful implementation of the market measures. There may be defects and merits in the market measures of Alauddin. But the merits over weigh the defects.

3.4.4 Estimate

Alauddin, was undoubtedly, the greatest Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He protected the Sultanate as well as the people against the fury of the Mongols. He secularized politics. Established law and order, peace and tranquility. His economic reforms envisaged by him were for ahead of times.

Although the Sultan was illiterate he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He also built a famous gate-way, known as Alai Darwaza. It is one of the most treasured gems of Islamic architecture.

4. Decline

When Alauddin fell ill in 1315 CE. Kafur as regent, seized the reins of government. Before his death, Kafur had nominated Shihab-ud-din, Alauddin’s six year old son, as ruler and imprisoned Mubark Khan, another son of Alauddin . Finally Kafur was killed by Alauddin’s loyal bodyguards in order to save their late king’s family from annihilation.

Mubarak Shah (1316-1320) and Khusharu Shah (1320) were the successors of Allauddin Khilji. Gazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Kushrau Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Thughlaq in 1320.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khilji_dynasty
• http://www.upscguide.com/content/mamluk-or-slave-dynasty
• http://www.winentrance.com/general_knowledge/history/ilbari-dynasty.html
• http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson3/chapter04.html
• http://selfstudyhistory.com/
• https://lighteddream.wordpress.com/2015/05/
• http://www.facts-about-india.com/the-khilji-dynasty.php
• http://holisticthought.com/the-khalji-dynasty/
• http://gkforallexams.in/