29 The Decline of Mughal Empire and their Contribution

Mohammad Nazrul Bari

1. Introduction:

The Mughal Empire held sway over a large part of India for nearly three centuries, but a drastic decline in its power and prestige came about by the first half of the eighteenth century. Not only did the political boundaries of the Empire shrink, the decline also saw the collapse of the administrative structure so assiduously built by rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan. In the wake of the collapse of the Mughal power a number of Independent principalities emerged in all parts of the Empire. However, the processes of the decline and the emergence of regional polities have been intensely debated among historians. It has also been a subject on which scholarly opinion is more sharply divided than on any other aspect of Mughal history.

William Irvine and Jadunath Sarkar attributed the decline of Mughal Empire to deterioration in the characters of the Emperors and their nobles. Jadunath Sarkar had analyzed the developments of this period in the context of law and order. He, therefore, held Aurangzeb as the arch culprit. According to Sarkar, Aurangzeb was a religious fanatic. He discriminated against sections of the nobles and officials on the basis of religion. This led to wide scale resentment among the nobility. He argued that Aurangzeb’s successors and their nobles were mere shadows of their predecessors and were thus unable to set right the evils of Aurangeb’s legacy.

2.    Causes for the Decline of Mughal Empire:

2.1. Jagirdari Crisis:

In 1959, a very scholarly work of Satish Chandra “Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court” marked the first serious attempt to study the structure of the Mughal Empire. Both its functioning and its plans were examined to understand the nature of the Empire and the reasons for its subsequent decline. Satish Chandra studied the working of certain key institutions of the Empire. The two institutions he scrutinized were the Mansabdari and the Jagirdari. The nobles in the Mughal Empire were the core state officials. They were given ranks corresponding to their status in the Mughal official hierarchy. These ranks were called mansab. Each holder of a mansab, called mansabdar, was paid in assignments of land revenue (jagir). Among the various obligations, the mansabdar had to maintain a requisite contingent of troopers. These troopers were paid and maintained out of the revenue of the jagir. They formed the base of the mansabdar’s power, and assisted him in the collection of land revenue. Availability of the revenues to be assigned and the ability of the Mughals to collect them thus became two crucial pre-requisites for an effective working of the system. According to Satish Chandra, Mughal decline has to be seen in the Mughal failure, towards the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, to maintain the system of the mansabdar – jagirdar. As this system went into disarray; the Empire was bound to collapse.

Another important work on nobility and their politics in the late seventeenth century appeared when Athar Ali wrote „The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb. In this work the problems attending the annexation of the Deccan states, the absorption of the Marathas and Deccanis into the Mughal nobility, and the subsequent shortage of jagir have been emphasized. The sudden increase in the number of nobles, caused due to the expansion of the Empire into the Deccan and Maratha territory, created a crisis in the functioning of the jagir system. According to Athar Ali, the nobles competed for better jagirs which were increasingly becoming rare due to the influx of nobles from the south. The logical consequence was the erosion in the political structure which was based on jagirdari to a large extent.

2.2 Agrarian Crisis

Historians have made great efforts to study various aspect of the functioning, of the Mughal Empire in order to identify the causes of its decline. The focus was also diverted from personalities and policies of individual rulers to larger and broader developments that were weakening the very structure on which the Mughal Empire had been built.

Irfan Habib attempted a deep analysis of the collapse of the Empire in his work „The Agrarian System of Mughal India‟. According to Habib, the mechanism of collection of revenue that the Mughals had evolved was inherently flawed. The imperial policy was to set the revenue at the biggest rate possible to secure the greatest military strength for the Empire, the nobles. On the other hand, tended to squeeze the maximum from their jagirs ruined the peasantry and destroyed the revenue paying capacity of the area.

Since, the nobles’ jagirs were liable to be transferred frequently; they did not find it necessary to follow a far-sighted policy of agricultural development. As the burden on the peasantry increased, they were often deprived of their very means of survival. In reaction to this excessive exploitation of the peasantry, the latter had no option but to protest. The forms of rural protest in Medieval India were varied in nature. In many areas the peasants took to flight. Entire villages were left deserted due to the large scale migration of peasants to the towns or other villages. Very often the peasants protested against the state by refusing to pay the revenue and were up in arms against the Mughals. Habib argued that these peasant protests weakened the political and social fabric of the Empire.

2.3. Religious Policy of Aurangzeb:

The most important cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire was the religious policy of Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb alienated the sympathy and support of the Hindus especially Rajputs by committing political mistakes. He imposed Jajiya on Hindus again. In 1679, when the State of Marwar was under direct imperial administration and the Rajputs prepared themselves to resist Mughal Authority, old as well as new temples were destroyed in different parts of the Empire. After the death of Raja Jaswant Singh, Aurangzeb tried to keep Ajit Singh; under his control. Durga Das managed to remove him and his Mother Rajputana in spite of all the precautions taken by the Mughal Government. That led to the Rajput War which continued from 1679 to 1681.

Although peace was made, Aurangzeb could not depend upon the Rajputs. It proved to be a great handicap when he was busy in the Deccan Wars. Instead of depending upon the support of the Rajputs, he had to set apart Mughal Forces to meet any possible trouble from their side. The execution of Guru Teg Bahadur was a blunder. That led to the alienation of the Sikhs who became a strong military power under Guru Gobind Singh. Later on, these very Sikhs gave trouble to the Mughal Emperors.

Although Banda was captured and put to death after a long resistance, the Sikh Power was not crushed. It kept on growing day by day and ultimately the Sikhs were able to out the Mughals from the Punjab. The same policy of religious persecution led to the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji. The persecution of the Hindus hardened their character and they became the bitter enemies of the Mughals. To quite Lane- Poole, “His mistaken policy towards Shivaji provided the foundation of a power that was to prove a successful rival to his own Empire.

2.4.    The Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb:

The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was also partly responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb was bent upon crushing the power of the Marathas. He found that the States of Bijapur and Golkonda were a source of help to the Marathas who were employed in those states in large numbers. They occupied important places of trust and authority in civil administration. Maratha soldiers were welcomed in those states. They got not only money but also military training. Aurangzeb felt that if those states were annexed, the source of the strength of the Marathas will be stopped. The Marathas were able to get a lot of booty of raiding those states. It was maintained that if those states were annexed, it will not be easy for the Marathas to gain anything because they shall have to fight against the might of the Mughal Empire.

With that object in mind, Aurangzeb himself went to the Deccan and annexed Bijapur and Golconda in 1686 and 1687 respectively. He might have claimed credit for the destruction of the Shia States, but he had committed a blunder in doing so. He should have followed a buffer state policy towards those states and subordinated his religious zeal to statesmanship. If he had helped these states against the Marathas he would have been able to keep the latter in check with much less expense and waste of energy.

After the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda, Aurangzeb tried to crush the power of the Marathas. Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, was captured and put to death under the orders of Aurangzeb. His son, Sahu, was also captured and made a prisoner. He continued in Mughal custody up to 1707. However, the Marathas carried on their struggle against the Mughals under the leadership of Raja Ram and his widow Tara Bai. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the power of the Marathas was still not crushed. They were stronger than before.

V. A. Smith writes about his Deccan Policy in these words, “The Deccan was the grave of his reputation as well as of his body.” Aurangzeb had to remain away from the North for a quarter of a century. The result was that the whole of the Mughal administration was thrown out of gear. There was complete confusion everywhere. As the Emperor was busy in the Deccan, the Provincial Governors did not send land revenue to the Central Government. At a time when more money was required for the Deccan war, very little was coming from the provinces. When Bahadur Shah succeeded to the throne, the treasury was empty.

The Mughal Government being a centralized despotism, the absence of the Emperor from the North for a long period encouraged centrifugal tendencies among the Governors. After the death of Aurangzeb, those tendencies continued to grow and the result was that ultimately various provinces became independent of the central authority. Thus, Awadh, Bengal, the Punjab and the Deccan became independent.

The Rohillas became independent in Rohilkhand. The Rajputs also asserted their independence. Thus, gradually the Mughal Empire broke up. The failure of Aurangzeb in the Deccan wars destroyed the military prestige of the Mughals. Too much of expenditure made the Mughal Government bankrupt. The Deccan wars can be called the ulcer which destroyed the Mughal Empire.

2.5.   Degeneration of the Mughal Nobility:

There was also the degeneration of the Mughal nobility. When the Mughals came to India, they had a hardy character. Too much of wealth, luxury and leisure softened their character. Their harems became full. They got wine in plenty. They went in palanquins to the battle-fields. Such nobles were not fit to fight against the Marathas, the Rajputs and the Sikhs. The Mughal Nobility degenerated at a very rapid pace.

Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes that “No Mughal Noble family retained its importance for more than one or two generations, if the achievements of a nobleman were mentioned in three pages, the achievements of his son occupied nearly a page and the grandson was dismissed in a few lines such as “he did nothing worthy of being recorded here.” The Mughal Nobility was taken from the Turks, the Afghans and the Persians. They began to degenerate during their stay in India.

The truth of this argument is challenged. It is pointed out that there is no reason to believe that the people belonging to colder climates are better warriors. Among the many well-known administration and distinguished warriors produced by the Mughal Empire, there were many Hindustanis and immigrants who lived in India for a long time. The eighteenth century also produced a large number of capable nobles and distinguished generals. Their personal ambitions were unlimited and they preferred to carve out independent principalities for themselves rather than serve the Mughal Emperors loyally and devotedly.

The chief reason for the degeneration of the nobility was that gradually it became a closed corporation. It gave no opportunity of promotion of capable men belonging to other classes as had been the case earlier. The offices of the state became hereditary and the preserve of people belonging to a few families. Another reason was their incorrigible habits of extravagant living and pompous display which weakened their morale and drained their limited financial resources. Most of the Nobles spent huge sums on keeping large harems, maintaining a big staff of servants etc. and indulged in other forms of senseless show.

The result was that many of the nobles became bankrupt in spite of their large Jagirs. Dismissal from service or loss of Jagirs spelt ruin for most of them. That promoted many of them to form groups and factions for securing large and profitable Jagirs. Others turned themselves into grasping tyrant who mercilessly fleeced the peasants of their Jagirs. Many Nobles became ease-loving and soft. They dreaded war and became so much accustomed to an extravagant way of life that they could not do without many of the luxuries even when they were on military campaigns.

The Mughal Nobility was corrupt and fact-in-ridden. By giving suitable bribes, any Government rule could be evaded or any favour secured. The interests of the Mughal Empire did not appeal to them. The British regularly bribed Mughal Nobles for getting their work done. Even the highest nobles took bribes which were called Peshkush or presents. That lowered the tone of administration. With the passage of time, corruption and bribery increased. Later on, even some of the Mughal Emperors shared the money which their favourites charged as Peshkush from people desirous of getting a post or seeking a transfer. Factionalism kept on growing till it extended to all branches of administration the two major causes of functionalism were struggle for Jagirs and personal advancement and struggle for supremacy between the Wazir and the monarch. Thus faction fights weakened the monarchy, gave a chance to the Marathas, Jats etc. to increase their power and to interfere in the court politics and prevented the Emperors from following a consistent policy. Factionalism became the most dangerous bane of the Mughal Rule from 1715 onwards. To save themselves from these faction fights, the Mughal Emperors depended upon unworthy favourites and that worsened the situation.

Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes. “All the surplus produce of a fertile land under a most bounteous Providence was swept into the coffers of the Mughal Nobility and pampered them in a degree of luxury not dreamt of even by kings in Persia or Central Asia. Hence, in the houses of the Delhi Nobility, luxury was carried to an excess. The harems of many of them were filled with immense number of women of an infinite variety of races, intellect and character.

Under Muslim Law the sons of concubines are entitled to their matrimony equally with sons born in wedlock, and they occupy no inferior position in society. Even the sons of lawfully married wives became, at a precocious age, familiar with vice from what they saw and heard in the harem, while their mothers were insulted by the higher splendor and influence enjoyed in the same household by younger and fairer rivals of servile origin or easier virtue. The proud spirit and majestic dignity of a Cornelia are impossible in the crowded harem of a polygamist; and without Cornelias among the mothers there cannot be Grachhi among the sons.”

A reference may also be made to the moral degeneration among the Mughal Nobles. “In a mean spirit of jelousy, they insulted and thwarted new men drawn from the ranks and ennobled for the most brilliant public services, and yet they themselves had grown utterly worthless. We have a significant example of the moral degeneration of the Mughal peerage. The Prime Minister’s grandson, Mirza Tafakhur used to sally forth from his mansion in Delhi with his ruffians, plunder the shops in the bazar, kidnap Hindu women passing through the public streets in litters or going to the river, and dishonor them; and yet there was no judge strong enough to punish him, no police to prevent such crimes. Every time such an occurrence was brought to the Emperor’s notice by the news-letters or official reports, he referred it to the Prime Minister and did nothing more.”

2.6. Deterioration and Demoralization in the Mughal Army:

Another cause of Mughal downfall was the deterioration and demoralization in the Mughal Army. The abundance of riches of India, the use of wine and comforts had their evil effects on the Mughal Army and nothing was done to stop the deterioration. The soldiers cared more for personal comforts and less for winning battles. In the words of Irvine, “Excepting want of personal courage, every other faults in the list of military vices may be attributed to the degenerate Mughals; indiscipline, want of cohesion, luxurious habits, inactivity and commissariat and cumbrous equipment.”

The impotence of the Mughal Armies was declared to the world when the Mughals failed to recapture Kandahar in spite of three determined efforts made by them. In 1739, Nadir Shah not only plundered the whole of Delhi but also ordered wholesale massacre. When such a thing happened without any effort on the part of the ruler to stop it, he forfeited the right to command allegiance from the people. The Mughal States was a police state and when it failed to maintain internal order and external peace, the people lost all their respect for the Government.

The view of Sir Wolseley Haig is that “The demoralization of the army was one of the principal factors in the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.” The source of the weakness was the composition of the army which consisted chiefly of contingents maintained by the great nobles from the revenues of assignments held by them for that purpose. As the authority of the sovereign relaxed, the general tendency among the great nobles was naturally to hold as their own those assignments which maintained their troops.

The general laxity of discipline converted the army into a mob. Drill was unknown and a soldier’s training which he might undergo or as he liked, consisted in muscular exercise and a individual practice in the use of the weapons with which he was armed. He mounted guard or not as he liked. There was no regular punishment for military crimes. Aurangzeb himself habitually overlooked a matters of course acts of treason, cowardice and deliberate neglect of duty before the enemy.

About the military system of the Mughals, it is contended that their weapons and methods of war had become frost-gorwn and outmoded. They put too much reliance on artillery and armoured cavalry. The artillery was local in action and ponderous in movement. It was rendered stationary by huge tail of camp which looked like a city with its markets, tents, stores and baggage. All kinds of people, men and women, old and young, combatants and non-combatants, besides elephants, cattle and beasts of burden, accompanied the Mughal Army.

On the other hand, the Maratha cavalry was swift and elusive like wind. They suddenly erupted on Mughal Camps and launched damaging attacks on their posts. Before the Mughals could get time for recovery, the Marathas, “like water parted by the oar,” closed and fell on them.

At the turn of the 18th century, musketry made rapid progress and became prominent in the methods of warfare. Swift running cavalry of match lock men was superior to army equipped with heavy artillery and armour-clad cavalry. In spite of that, the Mughals refused to charge their old methods of warfare and no wonder they were defeated by the Marathas.

2.7. Mughals Suffered from Intellectual Bankruptcy:

The Mughals suffered from intellectual Bankruptcy. That was partly due to the lack of an efficient system of education in the country which alone could produce leaders of thought. The result was that the Mughals failed to produce any political genius or leader who could “teach the country a new philosophy of life and to kindle aspirations after a new heaven on earth.

They all drifted and dozed in admiration of the wisdom of their ancestors and shook their heads at the growing degeneration of the moderns. Sir Jadunath Sarkar points out that “There was no good education and no practical training of the Mughal Mobility. They were too much patted by eunuchs and maid servants and passed through a sheltered life from birth to manhood. Their domestic tutors were an unhappy class, powerless to do any good except by love of their pupils, brow-beaten by eunuchs, disobeyed by the lads themselves and forced to cultivate the arts of the courtier or to throw up their thankless office. Not much could be expected from such teachers and their wards.”

2.8. Overview:

It is difficult to find a single explanation commonly applicable to the problems of the Mughal Empire in all its regions and provinces. For similar reasons it is difficult to accept a view of Mughal decline which applies uniformly to all parts of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire at best represented a consensus of both the center and the peripheries. In the early 18th century, it was this consensus which was disturbed. Different peripheries that had constituted the Empire followed their own different paths of developments. The eighteenth century regional histories thus indicate the endeavor to make use of the possibilities for growth within existing social structures.

The decline of the Mughal Empire, it was initially believed, was the consequence of an administrative mal adjustment due to which erupted a crisis in the jagir system, which ultimately led to the emergence of regional powers. Subsequently, the enquiries pertaining to the economic infrastructure of the Mughal empire point towards an agrarian crisis at the close of the seventeenth century, giving rise to rebellions by the Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs. To accept, however, one single explanation for the decline of the Mughal Empire that will cover all regions and provinces of the Empire is a difficult proposition. In the early eighteenth century, probably the delicate equilibrium that had so long sustained the edifice of the Mughal system got disturbed. What followed then was a process of readjustment of all the diverse constituents of this system, the result being a dislocation of the Empire and the emergence of regional powers.

3. Contributions of Mughal in India

A major Mughal contribution to the Indian Subcontinent was their unique architecture. Many great monuments were built by the Muslim emperors during the Mughal era including the Taj Mahal. The Mughals built splendid palaces, tombs, minars and forts that stand today in Delhi, Dhaka, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Sheikhupura and many other cities of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

His successors, with fewer memories of the Central Asian homeland he pined for, took a less prejudiced view of cultures of the Subcontinent, and became more or less naturalised, absorbing many subcontinental traits and customs along the way. The Mughal period would see a more fruitful blending of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian artistic, intellectual and literary traditions than any other in India’s history. The Mughals had a taste for the fine things in life — for beautifully designed artifacts and the enjoyment and appreciation of cultural activities. The Mughals borrowed as much as they gave; both the Hindu and Muslim traditions of the Indian Subcontinent were huge influences on their interpretation of culture and court style. Nevertheless, they introduced many notable changes to societies of the subcontinent and culture, including:

• Centralised government which brought together many smaller kingdoms
• Persian art and culture amalgamated with native Indian art and culture
• A new style of architecture
• Started new trade routes to Arab and Turk lands.
• Mughlai cuisine
• The Urdu language developed from the local language Hindawi by borrowing heavily from Persian and later Arabic and Turkish. Urdu developed as a result of the fusion of the Indian and Islamic cultures during the Mughal period. Modern Hindi which uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with loan words from Persian, Arabic and Turkish is mutually intelligible with Urdu. The two are sometimes collectively known as Hindustani. This is best exemplified by the language used in Bollywood films and in the major urban settings of the Pakistan.
• Landscape gardening

Here we will mainly focus on the three above contributions such as administration, paintings and architecture.

3.1. Mughal Contribution in administration: A few special features of this administrative system may be noted at the outset. First, the Mughals imported certain foreign elements into their administrative system. They came to India from Central Asia where they had their own system of administration. In India, they modified the same according to Indian traditions and setting. Thus, the Mughal administration presented a combination of Indian and extra-Indian elements. More correctly, it was a Parso-Arabic system in Indian setting. In the Mughal system of governance, the emperor enjoyed real sovereignty which was indivisible and inalienable. Within his realm, he stood supreme as the symbol of unity and preserver of peace. He actively performed all the major functions of the government.

3.2. Mughal School of Painting: The Mughal School of painting represents one of the most Significant phases in the history of Indian art. The style of painting developed during the Mughal period manifested a happy blending of Persian and Indian painting. Both of these styles of painting had made remarkable progress independently of each other. Initially, Persia adopted the art of painting from China and Mongolia. But, later on, Persian painting made itself free from foreign influences.

Babur: Babur, the founder of the Mughal rule in India was a keen observer of the beauties of nature. He was great lover of painting. He was a great admirer of the paintings of Bihzad, a renowned painter in the court of Sultan Hussein of Heart in the fifteenth century. Babur brought to India a number of paintings found in the library of his ancestors, the Timurids in Samarqand. Due to his preoccupation with the invasions and the conquests and lack of sufficient time, Babur could not devote enough time and attention to the development of painting in India. In his memoirs, however, he criticizes some of the works of Bihzad whom he regards as the „most eminent of all painters‟.

Humayun: It was Humayun, son and successor of Babur, who actually introduced the new style of Persian painting in India. Humayun came in close touch with the Persian school of painting during his exile to that country. In Persia, Humayun came in contact with two disciples of the famous Persian painter Bihzad. They were Abdus Samad and Sayyid Ali Tabrizi. Humayun took both of them into his service as soon as he was able to capture Kabul from his brother Kamran. They accompanied Humayun to India and laid the foundation of Mughal School of painting. Humayun assigned them the task of illustrating the famous book Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah in twelve volumes. A number of Hindu artists were also associated with this magnum opus. However, this work could not be completed in the reign of Humayun. Akbar continued the work under the supervision of Abdus Samad and Sayyid Ali Tabrizi.

Akbar: When Akbar became the emperor, he encouraged painters at his court and helped in the growth of this art. Under him the art of painting underwent radical changes. He established a separate department (karkhana) of painting, under Abdus Samad. Akbar commissioned the painters not only to illustrate various books, but also to prepare frescoes on palace-walls in Fatehpur Sikri. He invited renowned painters from China and Persia and employed the best talents of the country, both Muslim and Hindu at his court. He assigned them work according to their individual taste and aptitude and provided them all facilities to make use of their capabilities. According to Abul Fazal more than a hundred painters became famous masters of the art. The masterpieces of the painter‟s art at the new capital, Fatehpur Sikri were produced by the joint efforts of Muslim artists trained by Abdus Samad, and of Hindu artists who probably carried on their work independently. There were at least one hundred good painters at the court of Akbar among whom seventeen were prominently recognized by the emperor. Many of them were Persian, but a large number of them were Hindus. Many of these artists were experts in illustrating books on history and other literary works. Various artists illustrated the most famous historical work of Abul Fazal, Akbar Nama. A large number of books, which were translated from Sanskrit into Persian, were illustrated mostly by Hindu artists. These works include the Razm Nama, Persian translation of the Mahabharata. During the reign of Akbar the art of painting encompassed a wider scope. Varieties of subjects found expression in the art of painting. Besides, miniature paintings illustrating various works of literature, other subjects, such as court scenes, hunting scenes and battle scenes were painted. With the passage of time individual portrait paintings were given greater attention. The fresco painting on the pattern of Ajanta, developed during the reign of Akbar was another important contribution of the artists. Akbar was introduced to the European style of painting through the Jesuit priests, whom he had invited to his court from Goa. The Jesuit priests presented him with some beautiful pictures of Jesus Christ, Mary and Moses. However, the European influence on Mughal paintings could be seen in the works of painters during the reign of Jahangir.

Jahangir: During the reign of Jahangir the Mughal painting reached its zenith. During his period the Persian and Indian style of painting were fully synthesized. Jahangir was not only interested in painting but was also its keen observer and critic. He possessed knowledge of the art. He wrote in his biography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: “As regards myself, my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such a point that when any work is brought before me, either of a deceased artist or of those of the present day, without the names being told to me, I can say at the spur of the moment that it is the work of such and such a man. And if there be a picture containing many portraits, and each face is the work of a different master, I can discover which face is the work of each of them. If any person bas put in the eye and eyebrow of a face, I can perceive whose work the original face is, and who has painted the eye and eyebrows.” Though, the above passage sounds like an exaggerated boast, we have to accept the fact that the emperor was not only interested in painting but also had a discriminating eye towards painting.

Jahangir attracted many artists at his court. He also got completed the works taken up by the artists during the lifetime of his father. He gave generous patronage to various artists. Some of the prominent painters at Jahangir‟s court were Aqa Raza of Herat and his son Abul Hasan, Mansur, Muhammad Nadir, Inayat, Govardhan, Padaratha, and Bishan Das. Jahangir was a man of aesthetic taste and loved varieties of paintings. He was a lover of nature and ordered that unusual flowers, rare birds and animals should be painted. Mansur was well known for his floral paintings. The Red Blossoms is the best known of his paintings. Padaratha, Inayat and Mansur had deep knowledge of birds and animals. Some of their finest works are on display in various museums including the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai and Victoria and Albert Museum, London. It was during Jahangir‟s reign the Indian painting became free from foreign influence. Jahangir also developed a great fancy for portrait paintings, which was initiated by Akbar earlier. A large number of portraits of the emperor and the important nobles of his reign were painted. During this period the technique of group portrait was also developed. Some of the finest paintings of Jahangir‟s reign relate to the activities of the emperor, such as hunting, battle and court scenes.

Shah Jahan: Shah Jahan, the son and successor of Jahangir was more interested in architecture than painting. Yet, he provided patronage to painting. Some of the famous painters of Jahangir‟s time continued to work under the patronage of Shah Jahan. Even during the reign of Shah Jahan portrait painting was popular. Several portrait paintings of the emperor and his important nobles were executed. There are also portraits of beautiful ladies, including what appear to be Nurjahan and Mumtaz Mahal. Some of the miniature paintings of Shah Jahan‟s reign manifest the splendor of the Mughal court or represent the out-door activities of the emperor such as hunting, meeting dervishes etc. The art of colour combination and portrait painting gradually declined during the later part of Shah Jahan‟s reign. However, the art of designing and pencil drawing developed during Shah Jahan reign. But, the number of painters reduced at his court, and, therefore, the art certainly declined during his rule.

Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shah Jahan, withdrew the royal patronage which was given to the artists by his predecessors. The art of painting, thus, received setback at the court of Aurangzeb. However, this action of Aurangzeb had certain indirect advantages. The painters dismissed from the emperor‟s court found shelter in the courts of different provincial rulers. It resulted in the growth of different regional school of art and brought this art closer to the people. Among the Later Mughal emperors, some tried to encourage painting. However, they lacked sufficient resources. Thus, the Mughal School of painting received a serious setback after the rule of Shah Jahan and continued to deteriorate afterwards. During the later part of the eighteenth century it was influenced by the European painting, which harmed it further, and it lost its originality.

3.3. Art of Calligraphy: Calligraphy is the art of fine handwriting, in which the form of the letters is decorative or elaborate. The term „calligraphy‟ is derived from the Greek word kalligraphia, which means beautiful writing. The Mughal period witnessed the progress of the art of calligraphy. This art was closely associated with the art of painting. Often the paintings had some lines written on the reverse by an expert calligraphist. The calligraphist engraved imperial seals beautifully. Coins of the Mughal period are exquisite. Different artists were employed to design and mint the coin and engrave upon them. The famous historian of Akbar‟s reign, Abul Fazal makes mention of eight different modes of calligraphy. Muhammad Hussein Kashmiri was the most noted calligraphist of Akbar‟s reign. Hashim, a painter and a calligraphist lived in Shah Jahan‟s court. Most of the Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit scholars of medieval India were calligraphists. Chroniclers and historiographers copied out the texts in their beautiful handwriting. Calligraphy was considered to be an art requiring special skill. The emperors and the aristocrats appreciated beautifully written and illustrated manuscripts. The patrons preserved the specimens of the writings in albums. Aruangzeb was a renowned calligraphist. He enjoyed copying down passages from the Quran. His librarian, Jawahar Raqani was a calligraphist. Calligraphists were employed to engrave passage from the Quran on the walls of buildings and monuments. Skilled artists did artistic binding of books and decorating them with beautiful designs. Some of these have been preserved in various libraries.

3.4. Architecture during the Mughal Period: With the establishment of the Mughal rule in India, the Indian architecture entered a new phase. The enormous wealth and power at the disposal of the Mughal Emperors, especially during the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan enabled them to construct buildings of elegance and beauty. The Mughals built magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques, mausoleums, water tanks etc. They also laid out many formal gardens with running water.

Babur: Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, had little time to spare for building activities due to his preoccupation in military campaigns. He did not appreciate the buildings of the Turkish and Afghan rulers. In fact he sent for the pupils of the famous Albanian architect, Sinan, to work with the Indian craftsmen. Due to the paucity of time, Babur did not try to construct large building. Out of the buildings constructed during Babur‟s period, only three mosques have been traced. One of them is in the Kabuli Bagh at Panipat, the second one is at Sambhal in Rohilkhand and the third one was at Ayodhya. None of them, however, have had any architectural beauty except for their large open spaces.

Humayun: Babur‟s son and successor, Humayun had inherited from his father a taste for fine arts, but he could hardly devote time for those pursuits, due to his constant struggle for political survival and final defeat in the hands of the Afghan chief Sher Shah and eventual exile. However, two of his buildings, a mosque near Agra and another at Fatehabad near Hissar have survived. These mosques like those of his father‟s do not manifest any architectural significance. Humayun‟s palace in Din Panah was destroyed by Sher Shah.

Sher Shah: Sher Shah gave a new impetus to architecture. His famous mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar though built in Muslim design, Its interior was decorated in Hindu style. Another building constructed by Sher Shah was the Purana Qila at Delhi. Inside the Purana Qila Sher Shah built a mosque named Qila-i-Kuhna which ranks very high amongst the Muslim buildings of northern India. Thus, during the reign of Sher Shah an effort was made to blend the Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas which became a model for the architectural activities of Akbar.

Akbar: Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who had the time and means to undertake architectural activities on a large scale. Just as he built up an extensive empire by incorporating local kingdoms, Akbar evolved a new style of Indian architecture by utilizing the service of the local talent drawn from different parts of the country. He built a number of forts, palaces, mosques and mausoleums. One of the earliest buildings of the Akbar‟s reign was the tomb of Humayun at Delhi which is regarded as „an outstanding landmark in the development of the Mughal style‟. Hamida Banu Begum, the widow of Humayun, began the construction of the mausoleum, eight years after the death of her husband. This splendid mausoleum was planned by a Persian architect, Malik Mirza Ghiyas and constructed by Indian craftsmen and masons. It is a fine example of the synthesis of the Indo-Persian traditions. One of the outstanding features of Humayun‟s tomb was the large geometrical garden which surrounded the mausoleum and was enclosed by a high wall. The dome of the mausoleum is entirely of white marble, while the rest of the building is of red sandstone combined with the use of fine white and black marble. This building served as a model for the planning and construction of the Taj Mahal.

Akbar constructed the forts of Agra, Allahabad and Lahore and many buildings within these forts. However, his finest buildings were constructed at Fatehpur Sikri, the city that he himself established near Agra. Many buildings constructed within the fort of Allahabad have been destroyed, but most of the buildings within the forts of Agra and Lahore and in Fatehpur Sikri are still in existence. Two important palace buildings in the Agra fort constructed by Akbar were the Akbari Mahal and the Jahangiri Mahal. These buildings give us an idea of the emperor‟s earlier experiments at fusing the Hindu and Muslim styles of architecture before he took up the planning and construction of his dream city of Fatehpur Sikri.

The city of Fatehpur Sikri was spread over seven miles and was walled on three sides. As compared to the buildings in the Agra Fort, there is more unity in the architecture of Fatehpur Sikri. Critics have described the city as “an epic poem in red sand-stone.” The prominent monuments of Fatehpur Sikri include the Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Panch Mahal, Palace of Turkish Sultana, Khas Mahal, Jodha Bai Mahal, Miriam Mahal, Birbal Mahal, Hiran Mahal,Jami Masjid, Hathi Pole, Jami Masjid, Buland Darwaza and the mausoleum of Shaikh Salim Chishti. There are hundreds of buildings, which are all beautiful. It is probably difficult to find out so many beautiful buildings at one place.

Among the palaces, the most beautiful are those of Jodha Bai, Mariam Sultana and Bir Bal. Hindu influence is visible in the carved decorations on the pillars, balconies and ornamented niches. The Palace of Turkish Sultana is so beautiful that Percy Brown described it as „the Pearl of architecture‟. The Jodha Bai Mahal gives us a hint concerning the living of the members of royal household. The Miriam Mahal has been designed and constructed on the Persian model. The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure of five storeys, each storey being designed as an open pavilion supported on clusters of pillars. One of the chief characteristics of this monument is that every pillar supporting the flat roof is somewhat different from another. These pillars are the replicas of pillars from different Hindu temples. Of the religious buildings, the most important are the JamiMasjid, which encloses the Buland Darwaza. The Jami Masjid occupies a place among most renowned mosques constructed in India. The Buland Darwaza was built to celebrate Akbar‟s victory over Khandesh in 1601. It was built as a gateway to the Jami Masjid. The Buland Darwaza is a complete structure by itself. The tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti was built within the quadrangle of the Jami Masjid. It is a beautiful tomb of that period. The main charm of the mausoleum of Salim Chishti is in the exclusive use of marble and the delicate patterns carved on the screens. Thus, all buildings in Fatehpur Sikri are among the best buildings of the Mughal period in grandeur, beauty and art. According to V.A. Smith: “Nothing like Fatehpur Sikri, ever was created before or can be created again. It‟s „a romance in stone.”

Jahangir: Jahangir had more interest in painting and gardening than in architecture. Therefore, he himself neither planned nor constructed any building during his reign. But, he completed the mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra, five miles west of Agra. It was planned by Akbar, but only the plinth could be completed before his death in 1605. Jahangir took about eight years to complete the building and made certain changes in the original plan, which shows the temperamental difference between Akbar and Jahangir. Another beautiful building, which was constructed during the reign of Jahangir, is the mausoleum of Itimad-ud-daula, father of Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan herself took the initiative in constructing this mausoleum in Agra. It is a two-storeyed building and the first one to be constructed entirely out of white marble and covered with a pietra-dura mosaic. It has beautiful carvings, which have been extensively done in its every part. Besides marble, some other precious stones were also used in its construction. Many art critics have placed it only next to the Taj Mahal in beauty. This building provides a link „between two important phases of Mughal architecture, namely, those of Akbar and Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan: Shah Jahan‟s reign marked the zenith of the Mughal architecture. During his time a perfect assimilation of the Hindu and Muslim architecture took place. Shah Jahan had a rare passion for beautiful, unique and greatly ornamental buildings. For the first time Shah Jahan brought grace, delicacy and rhythm in the buildings that classified them in a unique category of their own. The extensive use of marble and pietra-dura characterized all his major buildings. He acquired marble from the quarries of Makrana in Jodhpur. He constructed not only several new buildings but also rebuilt several buildings of Akbar in the forts of Agra and Lahore. He constructed the Jami Masjid and the Moti Masjid in Agra. The Moti Masjid is built of pure white marble and is as beautiful as a pearl. Shah Jahan‟s architectural ambitions were greatly encouraged by his decision to transfer the capital from Agra to Delhi in 1638. He laid the foundation of a new city, Shahajahanabad, which was completed in 1649. In this city he constructed a palace-fortress complex known as the Lal Qila or Red Fort. He constructed many buildings in the Red Fort in Delhi. Among them are Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan- i-Khas, Moti Mahal, Hira Mahal, Rang Mahal, etc. The Diwan-i-Khas was the most highly ornamented of Shah Jahan‟s buildings. At a distance of about 500 metres from the Red Fort, Shah Jahan built the Jami Masjid, the largest mosque in India. It is a simple and austere building. Shah Jahan also constructed Diwan-i-Aam. Many buildings were constructed in Kabul, Ajmer, Kandahar, Kashmir, Ahmadabad and other places during the reign of Shah Jahan. All these buildings have been regarded fine examples of Mughal architecture.

The most outstanding monument of Shah Jahan is the Taj Mahal at Agra, which has been praised as one of the seven wonders the world. He constructed this mausoleum on the grave of his beloved queen, Mumtaz Mahal. It took twenty-two years to complete the mausoleum (1631-1653). Twenty thousand men were employed daily on the construction. The Taj Mahal is encircled by a beautiful garden except that from the backside where the river Yamuna flows. The chief glory of the Taj Mahal is the massive dome which is nearly 187 feet high. At each corner of the main platform is a minaret. The entire facade is richly ornamented by inscriptions of Quranic texts in black letters on white surface within rectangular bands, and flowers, arabesques and other patterns in precious inlay. The interior arrangements of the building are equally elegant and illustrate the sense for a unified and balanced design. The chief architect of Taj Mahal was a Persian, Ustad Isha. He was assisted by a number of Hindu architects and, perhaps, by European artists for the decoration of the exterior.

Aurangzeb: Mughal architecture began to decline after the death of Shah Jahan. Aurangzeb had no taste in fine arts including architecture. Therefore, no good building was constructed during his reign. Architectural activity almost ceased in his reign and only a few mosques were built. The finest of these was the Moti Masjid, which was constructed near the private chamber of the monarch in the Red Fort. He also built the Jami or Badshahi mosque at Lahore, which is one of the largest mosques of the sub-continent. Aurangzeb‟s son, Azam Shah, built a mausoleum at Aurangabad in memory of his mother, Rabia Durani, the emperor‟s favourite wife. It was built on the model of the Taj Mahal. However, when completed, it looked like a poor copy of the masterpiece.

In spite of the decline of the Mughal style of architecture due to lack of patronage and encouragement from the imperial dynasty, rulers of provincial dynasties constructed many buildings. The Rajputs built several forts and palaces during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries especially in their capital cities at Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Udaipur. Raja Man Singh built a huge fort at Amber, capital of the Jaipur state. The Rajput rulers also built dams, reservoirs and ghats. The Raj Samudra dam built by Rana Raja Singh of Udaipur at Raja Nagar near Kankroli is a fine example of construction of that period. The other important architectural productions during this period are the Man-Mandir in Gwalior, Govindadeva Temple in Vrindavan, Hava Mahal in Jaipur, Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur and the Golden Temple in Amritsar.

Thus, the Mughal age could be considered as a classical age in India, especially in the field of architecture. The variety of buildings erected during the Mughal period, especially during the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan, the harmonious blending of Indian and extra-Indian elements, the exquisite beauty and grace of the monuments, especially that of the Taj Mahal and other buildings mark the Mughal period as one of the memorable epochs in the history of Indian architecture.

4. Summary:

Mughals rulers made great contributions in various fields, including administration, architecture, painting, and cultural, economic, political and social life of Indian sub-continent. Mughals‟s administrative system, painting pattern and architectural design, were later adopted by Rajputs, Nawab and other regional kingdoms. Even English also adopted the administrative measure of Mughals. The land revenue system introduced by Akbar, exist even today, off course with little modifications. Several rules and regulations adopted by modern administrators derive from the origin of Mughal rule in India.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecture
• http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Mughalar.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_painting
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire
• https://www.scribd.com/doc/274562048/Cultural-Contribution-of-Mughal-Empire
• http://indiapicks.com/annapurna/S_Mughal.htm
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra_Fort
• http://www.redfortdelhi.co.in/history.htm