16 The cholas

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The Cholas who ruled from the ninth century to thirteenth century CE (850 – 1279 CE) played a very important part in the political and cultural history of South India. The core region of their control- Cholamandalam – was the area around Tanjore upto East Coast, the Coromandal of later times. The Chola period of south Indian history with its impressive corpus of inscriptions has been widely discussed in recent years. There have been diverse theories and many new interpretations drew less on political authority and more on institutions established at this time, together with the articulations of cultural forms. The standards established in society, religion and fine arts during this period were regarded as classical and came to dominate the patterns of the living in the south and also influenced and modified at certain levels in the patterns existing elsewhere in Peninsula. There was also an active intervention in south-east Asia to a greater degree than before, in the commerce and in its cultural forms.

2. Early Cholas

The Cholas, as rulers, are known to have existed from remote antiquity. They are mentioned, for the first time in II and XIII Rock Edicts of Ashoka along with the Pandyas and Cheras. According to this inscription the Cholas were a friendly power in the south beyond the pale of Mauryan Suzerainty. The Sangam literature also furnishes much on Chola chiefdoms. Karikala Chola was the greatest early Chola king. He is credited with the foundation of the city of Puhar at the mouth of river Cauvery and with the construction of an embankment along that river. He also showed much interest in the land reclamation and in improving the irrigational facilities. Though Chola kings are known from the Mauryan period, their post-Sangam history is unclear, as is their connection with the Cholas of early medieval times.

3. Imperial Cholas

The founder and first king of the Imperial Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya (850 – 871 CE) He established his power in the area around Uraiyur, captured Tanjore from the Muttaraiyar chieftains, an ally of the Pandyas and extended his kingdom along the lower Kaveri. Vijayalaya accepted the over lordship of Pallavas and began his rule around 850 CE. Vijayalaya is credited with founding of the temple of Nishumbhasudini.

Aditya I (871- 907) The successor of Vijayalaya, achieved significant military successes and expanded the Chola kingdom. He defeated the last Pallava overlord Aparajita in 893. This victory gave him control over Tondamandalam. Thereafter, he went on to conquer Kongudesa (Corresponding to Coimbatore and Salem) from the Pandyas. He also claims to have captured Talakad, capital of the Western Gangas. Aditya I entered into matrimonial alliance with the Pallavas by marrying Pallava princess.

Parantaka I (907 – 953 CE) The first important ruler of the Chola dynasty, Parantaka I, came to power and ruled almost half a century. He was considered the real founder of the Chola empire in south India. He secured the northern frontier of the kingdom by campaigning against the Pandyas and capturing their capital Madurai after which he assumed the title of ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai). Rajasimha, the Pandyan ruler who faced defeat at the hands of Parantaka, left his kingdom and took shelter in the court of the Ceylonese king. He defeated the combined forces of the Pandyas and the king of Srilanka in the battle of Vellur, and the Pandyan territories fell into Chola hands. During the closing years of Parantaka I, the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated Parantaka in the famous battle of Takkolam near Arkonam in 949 CE and succeeded in occupying the large part of the northern half of the Chola empire.

Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the Vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous Uttarameruru inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas belong to his reign. After the death of Parantaka 953 CE the history of Cholas for the next three decades in which a succession of weak kings brought about a decline in the power of the Cholas.

The Chola power was firmly established with the accession of Rajaraja I and his son and successor Rajendra I, which allowed about half a century for the Chola kingdom to be consolidated and stabilized.

3.1 Rajaraja I (985 CE – 1014 CE)

The Chola power reached its peak during the reign of Arumolivarman, who assumed the title Rajaraja I on his accession to thrown. It was he who laid the foundation of a mighty empire and also provided an excellent administrative set up to it. He was the son of Parantaka II. His military campaigns and the regions occupied and annexed into his empire are recorded in his Tanjore inscriptions.

• Through series of successful military campaigns Rajaraja broke the confederation between the Pandyas and the rulers of Kerala and Srilanka, in order to break the monopoly of trade held by these kingdoms with west Asia.
• One of the earliest exploits of Rajaraja I was the subjugation of the Cheras. In this connection he destroyed their navy and occupied Trivandrum. Rajaraja’s domination of the west coast eventually reduced the commercial monopoly of the Arabs.
• He defeated the Pandyan king Amarabhujanga, imprisoned him and annexed his territory. A successful naval expedition to Srilanka led to the destruction of Anuradhapura, and a Chola province was established in the Northern part of the Island under the name Mummadi Chola Mandalam.
• Rajaraja also achieved victories against the western Chalukyas and Rastrakutas. Rajaraja I then overran the Eastern Chalukyan country of Vengi. Saktivarman tried to stem the rising tide of Chola aggression, but his younger brother and successor Vimaladitya recognized the over lordship of Rajaraja I, who as a mark of friendship offered his daughter Kundavi in marriage to Vimaladitya. The control over Vengi mandala enabled him to establish his mastery over the strategic and commercial land and river routes.
• Raja Raja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were conquered. He encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya (south-East Asia) to build a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam.
• By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included Pandya, Chera and Tondaimandalam regions of Tamilnadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi, and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the Northern part of the Ceylon and the Maldives Islands in India. Rajaraja assumed the titles like Mummadichola, Jayankonda, and Sivapadasekhara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara or Brihadheswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 CE.

3.2 Rajendra I (1014 – 1044 CE)

The process of Chola territorial expansion continued under Rajaraja’s son and successor Rajendra I. The policy of expansion continued with the annexation of southern provinces of the Chalukyas, the rich Raichur doab and Vengi, campaigns against Srilanka and Kerala were also renewed.

• In 1017 CE he invaded and completed the conquest of Ceylon by defeating and imprisoning Mahindra V. The next year he reasserted the Chola supremacy over the kings of Kerala and the Pandyan country and made one of his sons the viceroy of both, with Madurai as capital.
• He defeated the western Chalukyas who were trying to meddle in the succession dispute of Vengi. He offered his daughter Ammangi in marriage to Rajarajanarendra, the Vengi ruler.
• His most military enterprise was his expedition to North India. Rajendra I directed his arms towards the North and his armies marched triumphantly as far as the Ganga and the dominions of the Pala king Mahipala. It is said that the waters of the sacred Ganga were brought to the Chola capital Tanjore. This implies that Rajendra defeated the Palas. He also assumed the title “Gangaikonda”. He founded a new capital called after him – Gangaikonda Cholapuram, identified with modern Gangakundapuram in Tiruchirapalli district of Tamilnadu.
• The most ambitious campaign of Rajendra was his overseas campaign involving both his Navy and army against the kingdom of Srivijaya in South-East Asia. In this connection the capital of Srivijaya, Kadaram, was sacked and the king Sangrama Vijayottungavarman was taken captive. The campaign apparently ended with the restoration of the kingdom to its ruler subject to his acknowledging Chola suzerainty. It is believed that Rajendra under took this overseas naval expedition to protect the commercial interests of the Indian merchants and guilds.
• Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire intact. Thus, the reign of Rajendra may be considered as one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of South India. Under him the extent of the empire was larger than ever and the imperial splendor was at its best. The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Srilanka formed part of the empire. He was a devout Saiva, built a temple at new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram and made liberal endowments. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnavism and Buddhist sects.

3.3 Rajadhiraja I (1044 – 1052 CE)

Rajadhiraja, when he came to the throne, had to face many troubles. His authority defied by the Pandyas, Cheras, and the king of Ceylon. He successfully crushed them. Presumably, it was to celebrate his victories over these adversaries that Rajadhiraja I performed the Asvamedha sacrifice.

The successors of Rajendra I turned their attention to conflicts within the peninsula, primarily with the Chalukyas, reviving the competition to control the province of Vengi. The old pattern of lightning raids into each other territory was repeated. The Chola invasion into the heart of the Chalukyan territory saw the sacking of the capital at Kalyani. This was avenged in 1050 CE by the Chalukyan king Someswara I by invading Vengi. At first fortune appears to have favoured the Chola sovereign, but eventually in the famous battle of Kopparam on the river Krishna, he lost his life in May 1052 CE.

• Military conflicts marked the reigns of subsequent Chola kings Rajendra II (1052-1063 CE), Virarajendra (1063-1070 CE) but the Cholas held their own sway till the time of Kulottunga I.

4.  Later Cholas

Kulottunga I (1070 – 1122 CE)

Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangi, the queen of eastern Chalukyan king Rajarajanarendra. He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the two kingdoms of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of Tanjore.

• During his reign the king of Srilanka Vijayabahu overthrew the Chola authority and became independent.
• Vengi and the Mysore region were captured by the Western Chalukyas.
• The old enemies of the far south, the Pandyas, Cheras and Srilanka remained hostile, but Srivijaya was peaceful. This permitted a steady improvement in the commerce of south India and better communication with the Chinese.
• Kulottunga I sent an embassy of 72 merchants to China in 1077 CE. and also maintained cordial relations with Srivijaya from whose ruler he received an embassy as well.
• Tradition and epigraphy alike give him the title of “Sungam tavirtta” (he who abolished the tolls), though full details of this reform are not available.

Kulottunga I was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola, surnamed Tyagasamudra, who had held the Viceroyalty of Vengi. He was succeeded by Kulottunga II. Rajaraja II, Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III. They were all weak kings under whom the imperial power of the Cholas rapidly declined. The rise of the feudatories like kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge to the Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the empire. Their place was taken by the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamudra and Pandyas of Madurai, in 13th century.

5. The Chola Polity

The Cholas had an excellent system of Administration. The emperor or king was at the apex of the administration. Chola inscriptions generally refer to the king as Ko (king) or Perumal Adigal (the great one). The unobtrusive titles used by the early Chola kings were replaced with high sounding ones. He was also given more grandiose titles signaling paramount e.g. Raja-Rajadhiraja and Ko-Konmai- Kondan, both of which mean king of kings.

The inscriptions present the king as endowed with an attractive physical appearance, a great warrior and Conqueror, a protector of Varnadharma, a destroyer of the evils of the Kali Age, a generous giver of gifts and a great patron of Arts. Kings often compared with the gods, sometimes directly, at other times through the use of double extender. For example, Rajaraja is referred to as ‘Ulakalanda Perumal’ (the great one who measured the earth).

The cult of God-king received due recognition and importance during this period. The worship of the images of the deceased kings and building temples over the remains of the kings amply support the above statement.

The king was assisted by a staff of officers or a council of ministers called Udankuttam in discharging his duties. The Raja guru, the priest of the royal family, played a very important part in the Chola polity. He was the spiritual and temporal adviser to the king. It is evident from the information given by the inscriptions that some of the Chola kings took interest in touring the kingdom. During their tour they generally camp in the temples. These tours will enable the kings to maintain contact with the public opinion and also provide opportunity to supervise the administration carried on by his officials directly.

There was an elaborate and complicated administrative machinery or bureaucracy for the Cholas, comprising officials of various grades. The higher officials enjoyed the status of Perundanam and the lower ones Sirudaram. The officers were paid by land assignments and honoured and encouraged by titles.

5.1 Provincial Administration:

The Chola empire for the sake of administrative convenience, was divided into principalities (under Vassal Chiefs) and Mandalams (Provinces under Viceroys who were mostly royal princes) with further division of the provinces into Valanadus, Nadus and Villages. The village was the basic unit of administration. There was autonomous administration for towns. The town was known as Nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called Nagarattar.

The most remarkable feature of the Chola polity was the existence of Sabhas and Assemblies to look after the administration of these territorial divisions. Different types of assemblies existed in different units such as Nadu, Kurram and Grama. In some cases references to the assembly of the people of a whole province is found in inscription.

5.1.1 Village Administration (local self government):

One of the most remarkable features of the South Indian polity was the self sufficient villages and the administrative set up which control it. The degree of autonomy at the village level was quite something remarkable for the times.

The basic assumption in the type of village autonomy emerging at this period was that the village should be administered by the villagers themselves. To this purpose a village assembly was formed, and authority was invested in this assembly.

Assemblies

There are three types of assemblies that were looked after the rural administration of the Chola period. Ur, Sabha and Nagaram were the village assemblies.

In some cases the Ur and Sabha are found together in a single village. It implies that the village was originally under the control of the Ur who had land holdings i.e. non-Brahmins. Subsequently the villages were granted as an agrahara to the Brahmins. All these assemblies were the primary assemblies of the localities concerned, and generally speaking, regulated all their common concerns. These assemblies were assisted by committees having jurisdiction over several spheres of activities.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions discovered in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Uttaramerur in the Chengalput district of Tamilnadu and issued by the Chola monarch Parantaka I in the year 919 and 921CE are the main source of information to reconstruct the village administration of the Chola period.

It is stated at the end of the two Uttaramerur inscriptions that fresh rules regarding the committees were laid down in order that “wicked men might perish while good men might prosper”. The above statement implies that the administration of the village had got into disorder owing to unscrupulous men having got into the committees. Thus the Chola king, Parantaka I issued these two inscriptions to perfect the village administration by eliminating the corrupt elements that percolated into the village committees.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions furnish detailed information regarding the nature of the composition of committees, qualification of the candidate for the membership of these committees and the procedure adopted to appoint the members of these committees.

The first inscription laid down rules for the election of the various committees and the second inscription plated two years later, amended these rules with a view to removing some practical difficulties that had been experienced in their working. According to the regulations of 921 CE, each of the thirty wards of the village was to nominate for selection of persons possessing the following qualifications;

• Ownership of more than one-fourth Veli (about one acre and a half) of land
• Residence in a house build on one’s site
• Age between thirty five and seventy
• The knowledge of Vedic literature

The following are the disqualifications;

• Those who had been any of the committees for the past three years
• Those who had been on the committee but had failed to submit the accounts together with all their respective relatives
• Those who had committed in cast or other great sins as well as their relatives
• Those who had stolen the property of others

From among the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each of the thirty wards by Kudavolai (pot ticket) or lot for a year in the manner prescribed. The members of the committee were called Variyaperumakkal, the Mahasabha was called Perunguri and its members, Perumakkal. Generally the assembly met in the village temple and occasionally under a tree or on the banks of the tank.

The assemblies were generally not subjected to the royal or central authority. However, when important business was transacted by these assemblies, such a change in the constitutional procedure or an alternation of land rights affecting the revenues of the king, these meetings were attended by the officers of the central government. But they participate in the village administration as advisers and observers rather than as administrators. It is known from the Uttaramerur inscriptions that the members of the village committees were not entitled to get any salary or remuneration for the service rendered by them. The office was honorary and no committee member was expected to spare more than a part of his time and energy for such work. Sense of sacrifice, devotion to duty and the welfare of the village community were the ideals to be followed by the great men who were in-charge of the village assembles and the committees.

The village assembly more or less enjoyed sovereign powers and some of them are as follows:

• It was empowered to levy taxes for village purpose and also remission of taxation in exceptional cases.
• It had the power to confiscate the land of those persons who failed to pay the land tax.
• It settled the local disputes and pronounced the innocence and the guilt of the concerned though the punishments were awarded by the royal officials.
• It was in-charge of the charitable institutions and temples of the village.

5.2. Agrarian Structure and Fiscal Policy

The Chola kingdom, like any other South Indian kingdom, was agrarian based. Land revenue was the principal source of income. The Chola kings took sufficient interest in developing agriculture and irrigational facilities. Reclamation of waste land and the clearing of forests were regularly undertaken by the kings and feudatories. The systematic land surveys at frequent intervals indicate the existence of a permanent method of assessment of land tax. The peasants and labourers were exploited to the maximum in this connection. The tax was collected either in kind or cash. It was generally assessed at one-third of the produce, which is high by any standards. In addition to the land revenue, the state used to levy a number of taxes. The taxes were levied on animals, pasture lands, roads, oil mills, forests, salt, various professions, markets etc. The judicial fines were the other potential sources of revenue to the state. It is very interesting to state that a death duty was collected during this period.

5.3. Military Administration

The Cholas maintained a regular army consisted of Elephants, Cavalry, Infantry and Navy. As many as seventy regiments, named after royal titles, are mentioned in inscriptions. Attention was given to their training and discipline and cantonments, called ‘Kadagam’. The soldiers of the Cholas generally consisted of two types – the ‘Kaikkolar’ who were royal troops receiving regular pay from the treasury and the ‘Nattuppadai’ who were the militia men employed only for local defense. Within the Kaikkolar, the Velaikkarars were the most dependable troops in the royal service, ready to defend the king and his cause with their lives. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.

6. Cultural History

The Chola period witnessed several substantial changes in society, economy, learning, art, architecture, painting, and further diffusion of Dravidian culture to south-east Asia.

6.1 Socio-Economic life

• Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period. The main stress in the ordering of the castes appears to have been the division of the society into Brahmins and non-Brahmins. Among non-Brahmins there is, as compared to north India, little mention of Kshatriyas and Vaisyas, but the Sudras are prominent. The Velalas, who in Varna terms were often equated with Sudras, were second in importance after the Brahmans, but the Velalas spanned a large economic range. The rest of the society was gradually shuffled into a caste hierarchy.
• The inscriptions of the later period of Chola mentions about two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai. This was a social division among non-Brahmin and the non- velala groups, which included those agricultural labourers who were performing services for the upper castes. The division began in Chola period but came more evident from the 13th century onwards. The Chola kingdom often witnessed feuds between these two groups.
• There were signs of social exclusiveness observed by the privileged class during this period. Curtailment of the socio-economic mobility of the artisans in also noticed in the Chola period. An inscription from Tribhuvani contains provisions that the artisans and the professional men should pursue their crafts and professions within the precincts of the village but not in the other villages. However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
• The institution of slavery was conspicuous by its presence in the Chola period. This encouraged the sale of men and women like ordinary vegetables in the market. The system of sati was prevalent. Devadasis, temple servants, and courtesans are very often referred in the inscriptions and the literary works.
• Agriculture and Industry flourished in the Chola period. The exploitation of the fertile land, land reclamation policy and above all the interest shown by the Chola kings produced sizeable agricultural surplus. The various taxes levied and collected by the kings brought additional revenue.
• It was during this period several industries flourished. Kanchipuram was the greatest centre of silk weaving. The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for temples and utensils. The bronze images of the Chola period that have survived to this day give most of the mastery attained by the braziers of the time. A large number of jewels and ornaments of gold and precious stones referred in the inscriptions and literary works attest the existence of jewel industry. Tanjore appears to be the centre of this industry.
• The agricultural surplus and the development of Industries gave sufficient stimulation for the development of trade both internal and international. Towards 9th century the countries located in the south-east Asia had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity with south India, had prosperity unequalled in history. The trade between south-east Asia and south India that was activated to the maximum upto the time of Koluttunga I. Gold, Silver and copper coins were issued a plenty with various denominations.

6.2. Literature and Education

The Chola period witnessed considerable activity in learning and education. Most of the educational institutions were attached to the temples and hence they played an important role in the diffusion of learning and education. The Chola emperors took keen interest in establishing colleges for the promotion of learning and education. Rajendra Chola I established college at Ennayiram; it had 340 students and 14 lecturers. Another college was established at Tribhuvan.

The period was marked by the growth of Tamil classics such as Jivaka Chintamani, Kamban’s Ramayana and others. Very few works were written in Sanskrit. Jayangondar, the poet laureate of Kulottunga I, composed the Kalingattuparani, which depicts the ruler’s Kalinga war in detail. Kuttan who was the court poet of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II and Raja Raja II, composed a Parani (which deals with Vikrama Chola’s Kalinga war) and a PillaittamiI (a poem dealing with the childhood of Kulottunga II). Pugalendi composed Nalavenba (the tragic story of Nala and Damayanti). Sekkilar composed his famous Periya Puranam (also known as Tiruttondar Puranam) during the reign of Kulottunga II.

6.3. Religion

Both Saivism and Vishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period. The Chola period witnessed the two streams of religious ideology. The first represents the orthodox Brahmanism where as the second the devotional cult. Ramanuja who advocated Visishtadvaita belonged to the period, and tried to strike and balance between the two.

6.4. Temples

The Chola period witnessed vigorous temple building activity. Nearly every village in the present Tamilnadu had a temple built during the Chola period. The kings, queens, guilds, feudatories, village assemblies and the wealthy individuals vied with each other in building temples. The temple became a very important institution and the centre of the Socio-economic life during the Chola period.

The early Chola temples were still relatively small, and superb in their simplicity. From the eleventh century Chola kings began to build their spectacular temples.

The Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore and other imposing one at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built during the time of Rajaraja the great and his son Rajendra I represent the culmination of Dravidian style of Architecture. Magnificent Chola temples are found at Chidambaram, Srirangam, Madurai, Tribhuvanam, Darasuram etc.,

6.5. Temple Art, Architecture, Sculptures and Painting

Temple architecture, particularly the Dravida or South Indian style of architecture reached the pinnacle of glory under the Cholas. The chief feature of a Chola temple is the Vimana, or the storey which was later eclipsed by the richly ornamented gopuram or gateway. The Pudukkotai district of in Tamilnadu has an unusually large number of early Chola temples which give us a good idea of the growth of the South Indian style of architecture from the Pallava period to the Chola period. The culmination of Chola temple architecture is represented by the Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore.

The Chola temples erected in the later phase are decorated with figure sculptures. The Chola Sculptors took particular interest in exhibiting their mastery over the art of carving sculptures on the exterior walls of the temples, pillars, door jambs and ceilings.

The Chola craftsman became famous for the production of Bronze images. The Bronze images of Siva in the respect of Nataraja, produced during this period, have neither equals nor rivals in the word.

The Chola kings also patronized the art of paintings. A few traces of Chola paintings are found in the inner pradakshina Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.

Web links

• http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/chola_dynasty.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty
• http://indiapicks.com/annapurna/M_Chola.htm
• Video : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6fyPpACKP4
• http://anudinam.org/2011/11/15/epigraphical-evidence-on-nammalvar-and-other-alvars/
• http://www.angelfire.com/planet/sunweb/Technology.htm
• http://know-your-heritage.blogspot.in/2014/06/aditya-chola-i-pallipadai-royal.html
• https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/southind/chola/south_cholacat2.html
• http://cholasdynasty.blogspot.in/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangaikonda_Cholapuram