10 Sunga, Kanva and Satavahana dynasties

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1.Introduction

The political unification that was obtained by the Mauryas became Psycho-physical reality after Ashoka. The fall of the imperial Mauryas disrupted the political unity of India into its constituent fragments. The northwest India slipped out of the control of the Mauryas and a series of foreign invasions affected this region. The Greeks were the first to take this initiative. The successors of the Mauryas in the north were the Sungas followed by the Kanvas. Kalinga became a separate province and prospered under Kharavela of the Chedi dynasty. In the Deccan and in central India the Satavahanas came into power with Pratisthanapura as head, its quarters. Thus the Post-Mauryan period saw the emergence of small indigenous and foreign kingdoms and hence this period has been designated as the “Age of Small Kingdoms”. The objectives of the module are designed to discuss the following three indigenous dynasties.

Topic I: The Sunga dynasty

Topic II: The Kanva dynasty

Topic III: The Satavahana dynasty

2. Sunga Dynasty (185 to 73 BCE)

The Sungas were the immediate successors of the Mauryas in North India, a Brahmin family of obscure origin. Pushyamitra Sunga laid the foundation of a new dynasty in Magadha known as the Sunga dynasty. According to Harshacharita, Pushyamitra, a general of Mauryan king Brihadratha, assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne. Thus he succeeded in gaining power by slaying his master. The dynasty ruled roughly for 112 years, i.e., from about 185 to 73 BCE.

2.1Pushyamitra Sunga:

Pushyamitra was the greatest king of this dynasty. He fought number of wars. He conquered the Vidarbha region (Berar) in the Northern Deccan. The most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the north-west. The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra but the invasion was repulsed by Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra and grandson of Pushyamitra. The Greek invader who faced defeat was either Demetrious or Menander. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded North India. By these conquests the Sunga dominions comprised the entire Gangetic valley and extended to the river Narmada. The cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya, and Vidisha were included in the Sunga kingdom. According to the Divyavadana and Taranath’s account, the kingdom included Jalandhara and Sakala (Sialkot) in the Punjab.

Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. The Ayodhya stone inscription of the king Dhana refers to Pushyamitra as a performer of two Asvamedha Sacrifices. Pathanjali also mentioned Sacrifices performed by Pushyamitra. Buddhist sources referred to him as a persecutor of Buddhists and destroyer of their monasteries. This however contradicted that during his reign the Buddhist monuments at Barhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. The stories of his persecution of Buddhists obviously betray sectarian bias.

2.2 The Successors of Pushyamitra :

Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra who in turn was succeeded by his son Vasumitra. There were seven successors of Vasumitra. An interesting inscription of the Sunga period was inscribed on a Pillar at Besnagar, the site of ancient Vidisha. The inscription referred to the king Kasiputa Bhagabhadra, is identified either as the fifth king Bhadraka or the ninth king Bhagavatha. The inscription indicates that the Sungas continued the Mauryan tradition of entertaining ambassadors from the Greek courts. The inscription further recorded that Heliodorous, the Greek ambassador, described himself as a Bhagavata (Worshipper of Vasudeva) and set up this pillar in honour of the god.

The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, assassinated by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty.

2.3 Cultural Contribution of the Sungas :

The Sungas, though ruled for a short period, played very important part in the history of ancient India. The greatest political contribution of the Sungas was to check the advancing tide of the Greeks. About the achievement of Pushyamitra, E.B. Havel states : “ In driving away the foreign invader from the sacred soil of Aryavarta Pushyamitra Sunga played the same role as the great Mauryan Emperors, though not with the same success”.

In the cultural sphere the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and Sanskrit language. It was under the patronage of the Sunga kings that the Sanskrit scholar, Patanjali, composed his celebrated work, the Mahabhasya. This provided a fresh stimulus to the study of Sanskrit literature. The Manusmriti, the law-book of Manu, Buddhacharita by Asvaghosha were compiled during this period. The Buddhist art of the Mauryas was survived and continued during the time of the Sungas.

2.4 Summary:

The Sungas successfully repelled the Greek invasions, revived Brahmanical religion, gave impetus to the birth of Bhagavatism, developed Sanskrit literature and patronised Art and Architecture. In short, the Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of the Golden age of the Guptas. In other wards the period of the Guptas was the culmination of the Sunga period.

3. Kanva dynasty (73 to 28 BCE):

The founder of the Kanva dynasty was Vasudeva Kanva, the minister under the last Sunga king Devabhuti. The Harshacharita narrates that Devabhuti became the victim of a conspirancy masterminded by this brahmana minister Vasudeva, who went on to found the Kanva dynasty. It is known from the Puranic evidence that four rulers of this dynasty ruled over Magadha for forty five years. They are Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman. Their kingdom was limited to the confines of Pataliputra. It is stated in the Puranas that the Kanvas were overthrown by the Satavahanas. Thus the Kanva rule came to an end by 28 BCE.

The rule of the Kanvas was a passing phase in the history of Ancient India. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magadha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta Empire. The fall of the two Brahmana dynasties was followed by the rise of the independent principalities of Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Mathura and Ahichchatra. The tribal states which had earlier succumbed to the might of the Mauryas now seem to have reasserted themselves. The Arjunayanas, the Adumbaras, the Kunindas, the Trigartas, the Yaudheyas, the Agastyas were the prominent independent families of North India.

4. The Satavahana dynasty:

4.1 Introduction:

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas. The establishment of Satravahana Empire heralded the dawn of new age in the history of Deccan. As the first historical dynasty, they brought political integrity in the south and also saved it from foreign invasion. They represented the only south Indian dynasty to control entire Deccan and extended sway over Magadha for some time. Thus the Satavahanas dominated the region located between the South and North India. Hence the Satavahana kingdom has been styled by some historians as “the bridge kingdom”. This acted as a link or bridge between the two halves of India. This peculiar geographical location of the kingdom made the Satavahanas as the initial transmitters of Aryan ideals and institutions from North to South India. Further the material culture of the indo-Gangetic basin started flowing freely to South India. The communication facilities between these two regions were improved considerably. This made a salutory impact on trade & commerce of the times. Thus the Satavahanas not only opened new vistas by realizing political unification of Deccan but also contributed their might in the fields of polity, society, economy, religion, art and architecture.

4.2 Sources:

The reconstruction of history of the Satavahanas is based on various sources. The Brahmanical literature, especially, the Matsya, Vayu, Vishnu, Brahmananda and Bhagavata Puranas contain considerable information about the Andhras (Satavahanas). The dynastic genealogies found in these Puranas, whose compilation may have begun during the early centuries of Christian era, throw light on the political history of the times, their value is enhanced when corroborated by the inscriptions.

For the social and cultural history of the period the Gathasaptasati of Hala, Brihatkatha of Gunadhya, the Kamasutra of Vatsayana are utmost importance. The Pragnaparamita sashtra of Nagarjuna informs us the basis of Mahayanism, which was evolved in the monasteries of Andhradesa. Of the Greeco-Roman writings of the early Christian era, the most well known account ‘the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’, written by anonymous Greek seafarer, enabled us to understand the pattern of trade between the Deccan and the western world and was also useful to reconstruct the Saka-Satavahana Chronology.

The inscriptions of the dynasty found in large numbers are great historical value to understand the history of the Satavahanas as they contained the names of the reigning kings and mention regnal years. Among the inscriptions of the Satavahanas the Naneghat inscription of Naganika throw much light on the achievements of the king Satakarni-I. The Nasik inscription of Gautami Balasri, the records of Gautamiputra Satakarni at Nasik furnish a vivid account of his accomplishments and achievements.

The Satavahana coins bearing the names of the rulers are of immense value for the study of political history and more important for appreciating the significance of the social and economic development. A large number and variety of Satavahana coins are found over large part of South India. Of the available Satavahana coins the number of Potin (coins of mixed character) and lead coins are more. The discovery of Roman coins in the Krishna-valley enables us to understand the pattern of trade between the Satavahanas and the Western world.

4.3 Origin:

The rule of the Satavahanas was a glorious chapter in the history of Deccan and Andhras. But unfortunately there is no unanimity of opinion among the scholars regarding the origin and original home of the Satavahanas. The imperfection in the Puranas led to divergent theories about their origin, identity, home land, genealogy and chronology.

It has been held by some historians that the Satavahanas were Aryans migrated to Deccan and mixed with the local inhabitants and imbibed their culture.

Others thought that they were Dravidians and inhabited originally in Deccan and other adjacent regions.

R.S. Sharma opined that Satavahanas were originally tribals of Deccan who later on came under the impact of Aryanisation. This gains support from the Aitareya-Brahmana which referred to the Andhras along with Pulindas, Sabaras,Pundras and Mutibas, who were tribals. Thus the opinion appeared to be correct.

4.4 Identity of the Satavahanas :

There has been a controversy for the last hundred years over the identity of the Satavahanas with the Andhras. The Naneghat, and Nasik inscriptions and coins discovered in the Deccan mention the names of the kings of Satavahana-kula. On the other hand, the Puranas refer to them as Andhra-jatiyas and Andhrabhrityas. The term Satavahana was never used in the Puranas while referring to them and the inscriptions and coins do not refer to the Satavahanas as the Andhras. In fact that the Puranas called them Andhras suggests that they were originally based in the Andhra region or that they belonged to the Andhra tribe. The term Andhrabhritya in the Puranas is taken by some historians to indicate that the ancestors of the Satavahanas were the subordinates of the Mauryas (bhritya means servant or subordinate). The recent discovery of the Satavahana coins including those of Simukha, the founder of the dynasty in Andhradesa, the evidence of the Megasthenes, the testimony of the Puranas prove that the Satavahanas were Andhras. Satavahana was the name of dynasty (vamsa) which belonged to the Andhra race (jati). In the post-Ashoka period the Satavahana rule extended over the entire Dakshinapatha for nearly five centuries.

Historians are also divided on whether the Satavahanas initially came to power in Eastern Deccan or Western Deccan. There are conflicting theories and contradictory opinions regarding this. Some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially established their hold over the area around Pratishtanapura (Aurangabad district of Maharastra) in the western Deccan and expanded from there into the Eastern Deccan, Andhra and the Western Coast. The Satavahanas from the beginning came to power over Andhradesa and Maharashtra.

4.5 Genealogy and Chronology:

Of the many complicated problems, the Chronology of the Satavahanas is another vexatious problem. The Puranas like the Matsya, Vayu, Vishnu, Bhagavata and Brahmanda were the main sources of information and shed more light by furnishing a list of rulers in addition to the regnal period of each prince. The statements found in the Puranas would have been accepted as the most authentic but for some glaring discrepancies and self contradictory statements.

Name of Purana	No. of kings in general statement	Total duration of regnal years	No. of kings in particular statement	Total no. of regnal years
Vayu	30	441	17	300
Matsya	29	460	30	448 ½
Vishnu	30	456	30	456
Bhagavata	30	456	30	456
Brahmanda	30	456	30	456

There is a greater unanimity among the Matsya, Vishnu, Bhagavata and Brahmanda Puranas. The details in Vayu Purana were at greater variance with contradictory statements. There are four points of unanimity in Puranas: the first, there were 30 Andhra kings ; the second, Sisuka (Simukha) was of the Andhra race; the third, Simukha who destroyed Susarman of the Kanva family with main force; and the fourth, that Susarman’s rule ended in 30 or 28 BCE.

Vincent Smith reconciled the conflicting accounts by stating that the Vayu Purana reckons the duration of the dynasty from the fall of the Kanvas, while the others mentioned the duration of the dynasty from its inception. He supports his view by stating if 45 years of Kanva and 112 years of Sunga rule are added to the 300 years of Satavahana rule mentioned by Vayu Purana we get the total of 457 years (300 + 112 + 45 = 457). The figure tallies with the statement of the Puranas that the 30 Andhra kings ruled for 456 years.

Thus the discrepancies in the lists led to different scholars to place the beginning of the dynasty widely with different dates namely 271 BCE, 231 BCE, 227 BCE, 216 BCE, 73 BCE and 30 BCE.

However the controversy continued on three issues. The first was over the date of the beginning of Satavahana rule. The second was the difficulty to give absolute dates for the various rulers of the Satavahana dynasty. The third is about the discrepancy regarding some rulers known from the coins and inscriptions who were not mentioned in the Puranic lists.

4.6 Political History:

The Satavahana history is divided into two parts, the early Satavahanas and the later Satavahanas. The rulers from Simukha to Gautamiputra Satakarni are treated as early Satavahanas and from Gautamiputra Satakarni the rest constitute later Satavahanas.

4.6.1The Early Satavahanas:

Simukha (231-208 BCE): The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simukha since his name tops the list of the Andhra kings given in the Puranas. He is also known by other names like Srimukha, Sisuka and Sindhuka. In the recently discovered Satavahana coins at Kotilingala in Karimnagar district of Telangana State the legend runs as “Siri Chimuka Sata”. In the inscriptions on the relief figures at Naneghat, Simukha is described as “Srimukha Satavahana Sirimata”. From this it is evident that the dynasty derives its name not from Simukha but from one Satavahana. So it could be presumed that Satavahana who was a vassal of Ashoka took the advantage of the death of emperor and consolidated his position in the Deccan and paved the way for the independence of his son. Simukha on assuming power proclaimed independence and named the dynasty after his father. Simukha began his political career in the Deccan and adjoining regions around 231 BCE where his coins have been found in large numbers. From there he appears to have expanded his rule to Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Simukha decided to stay in western Deccan and made Prathisthana as his capital due to its strategic location. Simukha’s decision to stay in Western Deccan and his patronage to Brahmanism show that he understood the political realities of the time.

Simukha was succeeded by his brother Kanha or Krishna ( 208-198 BCE), who had a rule of 10 years. His period witnessed expansion of the kingdom upto Nasik in the West. This is borne out by his Nasik inscription which refers to the scooping of the cave by a Mahamatra for Buddhist bikkus (monks).

Satakarni I (198 – 179 BCE): Satakarni-I, the son of Krishna was one of the celebrated kings of the dynasty. Many details about the reign of Satakarni I are known from the Naneghat inscription issued by his Queen Naganika. He is also mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela. It is known from the Naneghat inscription that he conquered western Malwa, Anupa and Vidarbha. He seems to have exercised his sway over wide regions of upper Deccan, Konkan and Kathiawar. To celebrate this success Satakarni-I performed Asvamedha yaga. He assumed the titles Vira, Sura and Dakshinapathapati. He consolidated his position by entering into matrimonial alliance with the “Rathikas” by marrying the daughter of Maharathi Tranakayiro. Satakarni was the champion of Vedic religion and performed Rajasuya and Asvamedha yagas. He issued Asvamedha Coins, patronised the Brahmanas by gifting lands and cows. According to Hathigupha inscription Kharavela invaded the Satavahana Empire in his second regnal year and his armies reached as far as the river Kannabenna (Krishna) and threatened Musikanagara. The results of the battle are not known. Some scholars suggested that these events took place during the reign of Satakarni I, while some others think that they occur during the reign of a later king with the same name.

Satakarni II (152 – 96 BCE) : The history of the Satavahanas following the death of Satakarni I is confusing. Satakarni II, the sixth ruler, was the other important ruler of the early Satavahanas and had long rule of 56 years. It is recorded in the inscriptions and later date literary works Satakarni II, after the death of Kharavela, attached and occupied Kalinga. It has been suggested by some that the Satavahana sway even extended for a brief period over Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha after the death of Pusyamitra Sunga. The discovery of his coins at Sanchi shows that he was the master of Vidisha region. The successors of Satakarni-II include Lambodara, Apalika and Megasvathi.

Kuntala Satakarni, the 13th king, is mentioned in several literary works. His rule was memorable as Sanskrit replaced the Prakrit as an official language of the Empire. His minister and scholar Sarva Vamas authored Katantra Vyakarana in Sanakrit to fulfil his Masters resolve. Gunadya, another minister was a scholar of Prakrit and Desi, composed Brihatkatha in Paisachi Prakrit.

Pulomavi I, the 15th king, regarded to have killed Susarma, the Kanva king of Pataliputra and annexed his kingdom. All the Puranas referred to the Andhras mentioned the event. It may be for this reason that the Puranas call Andhras as ‘Paulomas’.

Hala, 17th king, is famous for compiling the collection of 700 poems known as Gathasapthasati in Maharastra prakrit dialect. The passive reign of Hala gave an ample opportunity to the Sakas to exploit the situation.

4.6.2 Saka-Satavahana Conflict:

The Satavahana imperialism suffered a temporary setback from the time of Hala till the fortunes were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Sakas were powerful in Western India at that time. The Satavahanas and Sakas were involved in prolonged conflict since 100 BCE to control over the premier ports such as Broach, Kalyan and Sopara. The western Kshatrapa king Nahapana occupied western Deccan, Northern parts of Maharastra, Konkan, Malwa, Kathiawar and Southern Rajasthan. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea written by anonymous author in 1st century Christian Era records the hegemony of Narmada in this area and refers to the trade activity of western India with the Red Sea ports, which was grabbed by Nahapana after defeating the Satavahana rivals probably Sundarasatakarni and Chakorasatakarni. The Satavahanas at that time were forced to confine their activities to their original territories in Andhradesa. The five immediate successors of Hala had short reigns.

4.6.3 Later Satavahanas:

Gautamiputra Satakarni (75 to 106 CE): He was one of the outstanding rulers of Ancient India. His accession to the throne marked a new epoch in the annals of the Satavahanas. The fortunes of the Satavahanas were revivied by Gautamiputra Satakarni, during whose reign the empire reached its highest peak.

The achievements and personality of the king are described and eulogised in an inscription of his mother Balasri at Nasik, engraved after his death, during the 19th regnal year of his son Pulomavi-II. He is described as the destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas and Yavanas(Saka-Yavana Pahlava Nisudana), as the up rooter of the Kshaharatas(Kshaharata- vasa-niravaseshakara) and the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas(Satavahana-kula-Yasah-Pratisthapanakara). He defeated the Saka kshatrapa king Nahapana and recovered many of the territories that the Sakas had earlier wrested from the Satavahanas. He is credited with having conquered the territories of Anupa, Aparnata, Saurashtra, Kukura and Avanti from Nahapana. Thus the Saka-Satavahana conflict was revived and this ended infavour of the Satavahanas. This epigraphic evidence is attested by numismatic evidence. A hoard of Nahapana coins were found at Jogelthambi in Nasik, most of these were re-struck by Gautamiputra Satakarni.

The Nasik inscription suggests that Gautamiputra Satakarni’s authority extended over whole land from the Krishna in the South to Malwa and Kathiawar in the North and from Berar in the East to the Konkan in the West. One of his titles “Trisamudra Toya Pitavaha” (one whose horse drank the water of the three oceans) reflects his claim to extensive conquests in trans-Vindhyan India. However, towards the end of his reign, appears to have lost most of the territories he had conquered from the Kshaharatas to the Kardamakas. Once again the Saka-Satavahana conflict gave a rude shock to the strength and solidarity of the Satavahana kingdom.

Besides being a conqueror, Gautamiputra Satakarni was a great administrator and patronised Vedic religion. He is described as the abode of the Vedas (Agamanilaya),a pious and orthodox Brahmin (eka-brahmana), he was meticulous in maintaining caste-purity. He tried to fulfil the duties of Dharma, Artha and Kama. His mother and Queen were noted for charity and patronage of Brahmanism and Buddhist faith. He shared the sorrows and pleasures of his people.

Successors of Gautamiputra Satakarni: Gautamiputra Satakarni’ s was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Pulomavi (106 – 130 CE). During his rule pressure from the Sakas in the north-west increased and he could not maintain for long his hold over his vast inheritance. During the last years of his rue, he lost the north-western provinces to the Chashtana, the founder of the western Kshatrap kardamaka line. Pulumavi concerntrated more on his eastern provinces in Andhradesa.His successors, Sivasri Satakarni and Siva-Skanda each ruled for seven years. The Sakas resumed their conflict with the Satavahanas for the possession of Kankan coast and Malwa. Rudradaman I (130-150 CE) the Saka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathiawar) defeated the Satavahanas twice, but did not destroy them on account of matrimonial alliances.

Yajnasri Satakarni (174 – 203 CE) was the last of the great Satavahana ruler. He re-established his authority over a greater part of Western Deccan and Central India. This fact is confirmed by the discovery of his coins in Berar, North Konkan, Saurashtra and Western Deccan. Yajnasri Satakarni successfully ousted the Sakas from Aparanta, Western India and Narmada valley. His success against Sakas may have been partially due to the internal struggle between the Saka chiefs, Jivadaman and Rudradaman I.

The court of Yajnasri was adorned by Nagarjuna, the exponent of Madhyamika doctrine of Buddhist philosophy. He was also a reputed chemist. He statyed at Sriparvata and wrote scholarly works, viz., Pragnaparamita sastra, Madhyamika sastra, Suhrullekha in Sanskrit language. Yajnasri Satakarni enlarged the famous Amaravathi stupa and constructed the stone railings round the Mahachaitya. Yajnasri Satakarni’s death heralded the downfall of the Satavahanas.

The reigns of Yajnasri’ s successors, Vijaya, Chandrasri and Pulomavi-III, who ruled from 203 to 224 CE, were of little significance historically. The end of the Satavahana history was something in confusion. Many Satavahana names found in the coins were not mentioned in the Puranas. The feudatories of the Satavahanas arrested their independence. The rise of Chatus in the west and south, the Abhiras in the Nasik area, the Iksvakus in the region around Nagarjunakonda, the relentless pressure of the Kardamakas of Ujjain sounded the death knell of the Satavahana Empire. The Satavahana rule, which extended for nearly five centuries, came to an end in the early decades of the third century CE. The Satavahana Empire had declined as a consequence of the emergence of a number of independent principalities in Deccan and Andhra.

5. Summary:

The Satavahanas who rose to power on the ruins of the Mauryan Empire dominated the destinies of Deccan and Andhra for more than four hundred and fifty years. It constitutes one of the glorious epochs of Indian History. History of India before the advent of the Satavahanas was mainly the history of North India. The Satavahanas achieved political unification of Deccan and dominated the region located in between the South and North India. This peculiar geographical location made the Satavahanas as the initial transmitters of Aryan Ideals and institutions from North to South India.

The Satavahanas not only took interest in the expansion and consolidation of power but also cared more to introduce sound and solid administration. Under their benevolent rule people enjoyed great peace and a vast prosperity, which in turn stimulated the growth of the arts and letters.

From the economic point of view there was a remarkable progress in the field of Trade and Industry. The most striking development of the period was the thriving trade between Deccan and the Western world.

The Satavahanas patronized both Buddhism and Brahmanism. Like the Sungas, the Satavahanas championed the cause of Hindu religion and culture. They revived the varna system and took pride in performing Asvamedha and Rajasuya Yagas. The Satavahanas were the first who started the practice of donating land with fiscal and administrative immunities to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The Satavahana kings patronized the Prakrit language and literature. From the middle of first century BCE, they also patronized Sanskrit and made it an official language of the Empire.

The artistic excellence that was achieved under the Satavahanas had a tremendous witness. The Buddhist monuments of the period had been distributed throughout the length and breadth of Western Deccan and Andhra. They were found at Junnar, Karle, Nasik, Ajanta, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Goli, Bhattiprolu, etc. The Buddhist monuments found these places proved the popularity of Buddhism. The Amaravati school of Art displayed wonderful imagination and sense of symmetry. It was purely indigenous in character and it was the contribution of the Andhra Satavahanas. Thus the credit of achieving political unification of Deccan and Andhra, transmission of Aryan Ideals and Institutions from North to South, development of Agriculture, Trade and Commercial activities, opening new vistas in the field of Art, Architecture, Painting, Numismatics and Literature invariably were with the Satavahanas.

Web links

• http://www.indianetzone.com/39/satvahana_kingdom.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosala#Kosala_in_post-Mauryan_period
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanva_dynasty
• http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/satavahana-dynasty-rulers-administration-society-andeconomic-conditions/736
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushyamitra_Sunga
• http://www.bharatadesam.com/history/satavahana_empire.php
• http://www.preservearticles.com/2011101815616/short-essay-on-satavahana-chronology.html
• http://www.gktoday.in/satavahana-empire/
• http://www.indianetzone.com/10/ancient_sculptures_satavahana_empire.htm
• http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/satvahanadynasty.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs#Shunga_Dynasty_.28185.E2.80.9373_BC.29