15 South Indian kingdoms : pallavas and chalukyas

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The period from C.300 CE to 750 CE marks the second historical phase in the regions south of the Vindhyas. In the first phase we notice the ascendency of the Satavahanas over the Deccan and that of the Sangam Age Kingdoms in Southern Tamilnadu. In these areas and also in Vidarbha from 3rd Century to 6th Century CE there arose about two dozen states which are known to us from their land charters.

In Northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha (Berar) the Satavahanas were succeeded by the Vakatakas. Their political history is of more importance to the North India than the South India. But culturally the Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas and social institutions to the South.

The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami who played an important role in the history of the Deccan and South India for about two centuries until 753 CE when they were overthrown by their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas.

The eastern part of the Satavahana Kingdom, the Deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari had been conquered by the Ikshvaku dynasty in the 3rd Century CE. They left behind many monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota.

The Ikshvakus were supplanted by the Pallavas. The authority of the early Pallavas extended over Southern Andhra and Northern Tamilnadu and set up their capital at Kanchi. The Kadambas of Banavasi, the Gangas of Mysore, the Salankayanas of Vengi, the Vishnukundis of Indrapura, the Kalabhras of Tamilnadu were the important contemporary rulers of the early Pallavas.

Eventually by the middle of 6th Century CE the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai emerged to be the three major states. The main interest in the political history of South India from 6th to 8th Century CE centers round the long struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy to control the fertile tracts. The Pandyas who were in control of Madurai joined this conflict as a poor third power.

Political conflict was, however, no obstacle to cultural growth. A vast and many sided Hindu revival checked the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, created a great volume of soul -stirring devotional literature and advanced philosophic speculation. Numerous instances of the performance of Vedic sacrifices by the kings were found. Under the stimulus of this religious impulse, remarkable advances were registered in Architecture; Sculpture, Painting and Music.

2. Topic I : Pallavas

The Pallavas were one of the greatest dynasties of South India. They played significant role in the political, social and cultural history of South India.

2.1 Origin of the Pallavas :

There are many views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. B.L. Rice and others identified the Pallavas with Pahlavas or Parthians. But there is no evidence for the migration of the Parthians into the South. Many others have sought to connect them with Jaffna, identified with the island of Manipallavam mentioned in the Manimekalai. According to them the Pallavas were descended on one side from the Cholas and on the other from the Naga rulers of the Jaffna. K.P.Jayaswal argues that the Pallavas belonged to the Clan of the Vakatakas as both of them belong to same gotra.

S.K. Aiyangar states that the Pallavas were a family of feudatories of the Satavahanas. This theory has been accepted by many of the historians. He argued that the Pallavas migrated to Tamil Country from the southern parts of Satavahana empire. The Pallavas used Prakrit and Sanskrit, in their inscriptions, patronized Brahmanism and their inscriptions have been found both in Tamil and Andhra region. In the ancient Tamil literature they are mentioned as non-Tamils. It is thus evident that the Pallavas were originally the rulers of the Andhra region. After the end of the Satavahana rule, the Pallavas asserted not only independence but also moved to Tondamandalam and settled there. From this region they extended their sway over the entire Dravida country with Kanchi as their capital.

2.2 Early Pallavas :

Pallavas rose to the power during the later part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Pallava king, Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra ,which was known at that time as ‘ Karmarashtra ’and started as a political power in south India. It is believed that Simhavarma ( 280- 335 CE ) was the founder of this dynasty and Sivaskandavarman who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century CE seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas. His dominions extended from the Krishna to the South Pennar and upto the Bellary district. He had performed several Vedic sacrifices. Vishnugopa was the next important Pallava ruler. During his reign Samudragupta invaded South India and defeated him. The ‘Allahabad Pillar Inscription’ mentions that during the annexation of Samudragupta during 345-350 CE Vishnugopa was the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram. The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Chola king Karikala Chola during the time of Trilochna Pallava (350 – 360 CE). This resulted in establishing Karikala’s authority over some parts of the Andhra region. Nandivarman I was the last of the early Pallava kings. During his time the Pallava kingdom experienced the invasion of the Kalabhras.

2.3 Imperial Pallavas :

2.3.1 Simhavishnu (575 – 590 CE) :

Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras and laid foundation for the establishment of the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas”. He also defeated the rulers of Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms. He was the master of the entire region between the Krishna and the Kaveri. He was a worshiper of Vishnu and had the title Avanishimha (lion of the earth). According to a literary tradition, great poet Bharavi visited his court.

2.3.2 Mahendravarman I (590 – 630 CE) :

Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I. He was a versatile genius. He was not only a soldier and statesman, but also a religious reformer, an architect, a poet and a musician. Mattavilasa, Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, Gundabhara and Lalitankura were the titles assumed by him. The long drawn Pallava-Chalukya conflict began during this period. Mahendravarman I was defeated by Pulakesin II at a place called Pullalur near Kanchi. Pulakesin II almost reached the Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman purchased peace by ceding their Northern provinces to the Pulakesin II.

Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism but converted to Saivism under the influence of Tirunavukkarasu or Appar. He studied music under Rudracharya and composed exercises for the practice of students on a variety of Vina known as Parivadini. He has authored the Sanskrit work ‘Mastavilasa Prahasanam’. He was a great builder of cave temples. The rock cut caves at Mandagapattu, Dalavanur and Tiruchirapalli were excavated during his time. The Jain paintings found in the rock cut caves at Sittannavasal located in the present Pudukkottai region are attributed to him. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in music.

2.3.3 Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE):

Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. He had the title Mahamalla or Mamalla which means ‘great wrestler’. The Pallava-Chalukya conflict that was started by his father was successfully continued by him. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. He defeated Pulakesin II, in three battles including that at Manimangalam near Kanchi in 642 CE. Pulakesin II lost his life and hence Narasimhavarman assumed the title Vatapikonda (the conqueror of Vatapi).

Another notable achievement of Narasimhanvarman I was his novel expedition to Srilanka, to reinstate the Sinhalese princes Manavarman.

During his reign Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and noted that Buddhism and Jainism flourished in the city besides Hindusim. He also noted that it was the birth place of the celebrated Dharmapala, who became the abbot of the great Vihara of Nalanda. According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and Ghatika of Kanchi served as a prominent centre of learning. Besides he was a great builder having constructed Mamallappuram and created the Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas) during his reign.

2.3.4 Mahendravarman II (668 – 670 CE) :

Mahendravarman II ruled for a very short period of two years, since he was killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I. He also captured Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas and ruled over it for a short period.

2.3.5 Paramesvaravarman I (670 – 695 CE) :

The Pallava, Chalukya conflict continued during the reign of Paramesvaravarman I. After many reverses Paramesvaravarman I finally won a decisive victory over the Chalukyas and their ally, the Gangas. Paramesvaravarman I was called Ugradanda and ‘destroyer of the city of Ranarasika’ in an inscription of his son, Ranarasika was a title of Vikramditya I. Paramesavaravarman I was a devotee of Siva and built Siva temple at Kuram near Kanchi.

2.3.6. Narasimhavarman II (695 – 722 CE) :

Paramesvaravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman II. He had the title ‘Rajasimha’. He enjoyed a peaceful reign and credited with the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. He had the titles like Shankara Bhakta and Agamapriya. He was also a great patron of Art and letters. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.

2.3.7 Paramesvaravarman II (728-731 CE) :

Narasimhavarman II was succeeded by his son Paramesvaravarman II. The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign. The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked Kanchipuram and the Pallava king had to buy peace at a heavy price. However, he was killed in a war with the Ganga king, an ally of the Chalukyas.

2.3.8 Nandivarman II (731 – 795 CE) :

Paramesvaravarman II died without any heir to the throne. After the death of Paramesvaravarman II the Simhavishnu line of Pallava kings came to an end. A mild war of succession was started in between the various branches of Pallavas. But the Samantas and the learned people of the Ghatika of Kanchi selected Nandivarman Pallavamalla, who belonged to a collateral branch of the Pallavas, as the king. There was a renewal of conflict between the Pallavas and Chalukyas. Vikramaditya II invaded the Pallava kingdom, defeated Nandivarman and captured Kanchi. The Chaluykan king, the Vikramaditya II, after scoring victory over the Pallava king, entered Kanchi – the city of Temples. He was wonderstruck by seeing the architectural grandeur of the Kailsanatha temple, the gem of the Dravidian style of Architecture.

Nandivarman was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning. During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were constructed. The celebrated Vaishnava saint Tirumangai Alvar was his contemporary.

2.4 End of the Pallava Rule:

Vikramaditya II ’ s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi may be regarded as the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, the western Gangas and the Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter offered his daughter Reva in marriage to former and saved temporarily the collapse of the Pallava Kingdom.

The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE. Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) were the other rulers.

Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end.

2.5 Contribution of Pallavas to Indian Culture

2.5.1 Administration:

The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. Monarchy was the order of the day. The title ‘Dharma-Maharaja’ assumed by the kings show that they exercised their rule righteously. The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honour, judge, and leader of the armed forces.

The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.

The village is the basic unit of administration. Different types of villages like villages with inter caste population, Brahmadeya and Devadana existed during this period. The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies. Sabha, Urar etc., were the most popular assembles of this period. Every village had got a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana. Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths etc. It appears that the village acted like self sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period. Entrusting the administration of a smaller territorial to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.

Land revenue was the major source of income. The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and textiles, draught cattle etc., It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working and the soil was very fertile, the labourers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.

2.5.2 Religion :

The heterodox religions viz. Buddhism and Jainism were still very active in the Pallava kingdom. It is evident from the testimony of Hieun Tsang that there were hundred Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 Buddhist monks and nuns belonging to the Manayana schools of Buddhism at Kanchi. Jainism enjoyed popularity in the beginning.

Most of the Pallava kings were the followers of both Vaishnavism and Saivism. The Pallava kings assumed not only the title “Dharma-Maharaja’ but also performed the Vedic sacrifices like Agnisthoma, Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices, which were in conformity with the Vedic sacrifices. Thus Buddhism and Jainism lost the royal patronage and mass support.

This paved the way for the rise of Vedic religion. Besides the performance of Vedic sacrifices, the worship of gods Brahma, Vishnu and Siva became popular. From the 7th century onwards the Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known Bhakti movement. The cult of Bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the South Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played a great part in propagating it.

The Vedic tradition was further reinforced by a movement started by Sankaracharya. This movement was aimed at cleaning the Vedic philosophy of its obscurities and its inconsistencies thereby making it both comprehensible and acceptable to the people at large. Sankaracharya achieved fame by advocating Advaita philosophy.

2.5.3 Education and Literature:

The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. The University of Kanchi became the nucleus of learning and intellectualism. It attracted students from different parts of India and abroad. The founder of the Kadamaba dynasty, Mayurasarman, studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Rector of Nalanda University, belonged to Kanchi. The Ghatikas and Mathas were the other Brahmanical educational institutions attached to the Temples. Sanskrit, the language of privileged, became the recognized medium in the Brahamanical institutions of the period.

Several works in Sanskrit were produced during this period. The Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi, Dasakumaracharita of Dandi and the Mattavilasaprahasana of Mahendravarman I were the best Sanskrit works of the period.

The Tamil literature had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. Tiruvelluvar, the author of ‘kural’ lived during this period. Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated Mahabharata into Tamil. The ‘Thevaram’ composed by the Nayanars and ‘Nalayaradivyaprabhandam’ composed by the Alvars represent the religious literature of the period. The Tamil devotional saints exploited music and dance to realize the ‘ concept of compassionate God’ . The religious hymns were sung with the accompaniment of music and dance. This became a regular feature in the temple festivals.

2.5.4 Art and Architecture:

The religious revival of the period gave an impetus to the architectural activity. The contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian Art and Architecture is immense. In fact the history of Dravidian style of Indian Architecture in the south began with the Pallavas. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic Rathas and culminated in structural temples.

The Five Rathas popularly called as the ‘Pancha Pandava Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas)’ at Mamallapuram signifies five different styles of Architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest Architectural master piece of Pallava Art.

The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture. The Mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The sculpture depicting the ‘Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna’ at Mamallapuram is a master piece of classical art. Music, Dance and Painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal belonged to the Pallava period.

2.5.5 Spread of Indian Culture:

The crowning achievement of the Pallavas was that they became torch-bearers of Hindu culture in South-East Asia. This later on paved the way for the creation of Greater India.

3.  Topic II : Chalukyas of Badami :

3. 1 Introduction:

Chalukyas of Badami were the successors of the Vakatakas in western Deccan. They established their capital at Vatapi, modern Badami in the Bijapur district, which forms a part of Karnataka. They ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries from 543 to 753 CE and united whole of south India. Later they branched off into several independent ruling houses, but the main branch continued to rule at Vatapi. Their period has also been important in the history of India for their cultural contribution.

3.2 Origin :

The origin of the name, Chalukyas is not yet clear and is a subject of controversy. The inscriptions do not throw light on it. The literary works are full of legends about their origin. According to Bilhana, the author of Vikramankacharita, the original home of the Chalukyas was Ayodhya. The late Chalukyan inscriptions also lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home. But all this seems to have been done to claim legitimacy and respectability. Some others thought that the Chalukyas were a local Kanarese people who improvised into the ruling Varna under Brahmanical influence. This opinion seems to be more probable, though there is no evidence for this also.

3.3 Political History :

• Pulakesin I (543 – 566 CE) was the real founder of the Chalukyan kingdom. He was the son of Ranaraga and grandson of Jayasimha. The name Pulakesi probably means ‘The Great Lion’. He built a strong fortress at Vapati (Modern Badami) in Bijapur district of Karnataka and declared independence by performing a horse sacrifice. He assumed the titles Satyasraya (the asylum of truth) and Ranavikrama (the valorous in war).
• Kirtivarman I (566 – 597 CE) the son of Pulakesin I enlarged the ancestral kingdom by waging wars against the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Nalas of Bastar and Mauryas of Konkan. As a result of his conquests a large part of Maharashtra came under his rule. The conquest of Konkan brought the important port of Goa, then known as Revatidvipa, into the growing empire.
• Mangalesa (597 – 609 CE) : At the death of Kirtivarman, his son Pulakesin II was too young to rule, so his uncle Mangalesa, Kirtivarman’s brother held sway as regent. Mangalesa continued the policy of expansion and invaded the territory of Kalachuri king Buddharaja whose dominion extended over Gujarat, Kandesh, and Malwa. He suppressed a rebellion on the part of the governor of Revatidvipa and re-established Chalukyan power in the Konkan. When Pulakesi came of age ,Mangalesa did not hand over the kingdom to his nephew but wanted to grab it permanently .Thereupon, Pulakesin II gathered the army, defeated and killed his uncle Mangalesa in the battle and proclaimed himself king in 609 CE.

3.3.1 Pulakesin II (609 – 642 CE) :

• Pulakesin II was the greatest king of the Chalukya of Badami. His accession to the throne in the year 609 CE, marks the beginning of an important epoch in the history of Deccan. The Chalukyas who remained until then as a local power, confined to Karnataka and Southern Maharashtra, spread over the whole of the Deccan and became paramount sovereigns of the entire peninsula to the South of the Vindhyas.
• His Aihole inscription, composed by Ravikiriti, narrates his victorious campaigns and of his great qualities. These included victories against the Kadambas of Banavasi, Alupas and Gangas of Mysore. Dhurvinita the Ganga ruler accepted his overlord ship and even gave his daughter in marriage to Pulakesin II, and she became the mother of Vikramaditya I. The Mauryas of Northern Konkan for once more reduced to submission by successful attack on their capital Sripuri (on the Island of Elephanta).
• The Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras also offered their submission to him because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanauj. After this Pulakesin II defeated the rulers of Kosala, vishnukundins, Kalinga, Pistapura and the Banas of Rayalaseema. As the Chalukyan empire became too vast to be governed from Badami , Pulakesi made his brother Vishnuvardhana Viceroy in 624 and allowed him to rule the Vengi empire independently.
• His greatest achievement was his victory over Harsha on the banks of river Narmada in 630 CE. Thus the river Narmada became a border line between the two empires. This fact has been recorded in the Aihole Prasasti and also in the writings of Hieun Tsang. The present day Maharashtra, West coast, East coast of Andhra and Gujarat were included in his empire.
• Pulakesin’s first expedition against the Pallava kingdom, which was then ruled by Mahendra Varman I was a complete success and he annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom. He again invaded the Pallavas, but the Pallavas now under Narasimhavarman I, defeated and killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami.
• Pulakesin II sent a complimentary embassy to the Persian king Khusrau II in 625-626 CE. The reception given to the Persian mission is, in fact, depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings. The Chinese, Hiuen Tsang paid a visit to the Chalukya kingdom and was highly impressed by the power and efficiency of the administration of Pulakesin II. Hiuen Tsang’s description is quite useful in knowing the social and economic conditions of the Chalukyas of Badami.

3.3.2 Vikramaditya I (644 – 681 CE) :

There was a temporary decline in the fortunes of the Chalukyas after Pulakesin II. However, Vikramaditya I was able to re-establish the glory by driving out the Pallava forces after 12 years. In 668 CE he advanced against Kanchi and defeated the Pallava Mahendravarman II, who later died. Thus, Vikramaditya I avenged his father’s defeat and death at the hands of the Pallavas. He is also said to humble the power of the Cholas, Pandyas and the Keralas. Pallava king Parameshvaravarman defeated Vikramaditya I in 674 CE at Peruvalanallur.

3.3.3 Vinayaditya (681-693 CE) :

Vinayaditya succeeded his father Vikramaditya I in 681 CE. He won many wars including his war against king Yashovarma of Kanauj. He was succeeded by his son Vijayaditya (693-733 CE). He was also a good warrior like his father and defeated his arch rival, the Pallava king, Parameswravarma. Vijayaditya was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II (733- 744 CE). He waged several wars including the Arabs in Gujarat and he defeated the Pallava king Nandivarman II, Cholas, Pandyas and Kalabras and erected a victory pillar on the shores of south sea.

3.3.4 Kirtivarman II (744 – 753 CE) :

Kirtivarman II was the last representative of this dynasty. The Pallava – Chalukya conflict literally reduced the economic stability of the kingdom. This in turn gave a blow to the political unity of the kingdom. The subordinates started asserting their power and hence the central authority was reduced. The Rashtrakutas, the most powerful feudatories, took the advantage and dethroned the Chalukyas from power. Kirtivarman was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Thus the Chalukyan empire passed on into the Rashtrakutas.

3.4 Contribution to Indian Culture:

3.4.1 Administration:

The central government under the Chalukyas of Badami exercised a Paternalistic control over the village administration, which was unlike the administrative practice of South India. Thus the main difference between the Chalukyan administration and that of South Indian rulers like Pallavas and Cholas was that the South Indian rulers allowed a great amount of autonomy to the village administration. Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.

The rule of the Chalukyas of Badami was confined to north-western part of the Deccan plateau. This may be styled as ‘Plateau kingdom’. In the plateau kingdoms the water level is at the lowest and also not possible for the excavation of canals and tanks. The state income from land seems to have been very limited, since most of the land was rocky and not fertile. The earnings from the trading activities also were not considerable, since trade and commerce in India during this period was a general decline. Hence the Chalukyas resorted to frequent invasions and plunder of the neighbouring territories. The mutually destructive Chalukya-Pallava conflict can be properly understood only in this background.

The Chalukyas of Badami are said to have been a great maritime power. Pulakesin II had 100 ships in his army. The army of the Chalukyas consisted of a small standing army, but mainly of feudal levies. Army officers seem to have been used in civil administration whenever an emergency arose.

3.4.2 Religion :

The contribution of the Chalukyas of Badami in the field of religion, art and architecture is of immense value. The period was an era of the revival of Hindu culture and spirituality. The Vaishnavism, Saivism, Shakta cults and Jainism had received generous encouragement both from the kings, queens and the subjects. Importance was too given to Vedic rights and rituals. Pulakesin I, the founder of the dynasty, performed Asvamedha sacrifice. Quite a few Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period. It was the popularity of Brahmanism and Puranic religion that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Shiva and other gods.

Temples were built in large numbers at Badami, Mahakuta , Pattadakal, Aihole, Alampur and at other places and rock-cut caves were excavated at Badami, Aihole and at other places during this regime. Vikramaditya brought some sculptors from Kanchipuram for constructing temples in his empire.. The temples at Badami include the Melagitti Shivalaya and a group of four rock-cut halls. Aihole is a town of temples and contains around 70 structures.

Though they were the staunch followers of Hinduism, they showed admirable spirit of tolerance towards the other religions. Hiuen Tsang mentioned the decline of the Buddhism in western Deccan. But Jainism was steadily on the path of progress. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II, who composed the Aihole inscription, was Jain. Similarly Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya gave liberal donations to Jains.

3.4.3 Art and Architecture:

The Chalukyas were the great patrons of Art and Architecture. The early Chalukyas of Badami were responsible for the introduction of a new style of Architecture known “the Chalukyan Style” or the “Vesara” style in the annals of Deccan architecture. Monuments built under this style represent a harmonious combination of Nagara (north Indian) and Dravida (south India) style of architecture.

The Chalukyan monuments represent two phases. Cave temples represent the first phase. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik. They are monolithic and excavated in sloppy hills. They are in Brahmanical dedication and Buddhist in style and technique.

The structural temples built by the Chalukyan kings and their subordinates represent the second phase. The Chalukyan temples in the beginning had flat or slightly inclined roof tops. In the later phases tower like structure (Vimana) has appeared. Pillared Mantapa was added to the four walled Garbhagriha .This is an important development not to be found in Gupta temple architecture. The Durga temple at Aihole is in horse-shoe shaped platform which was an imitation of Buddhist Chaitya. The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple Kanchi. The sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.

The sculptures representing various aspects of Siva and Vishnu in the Chalukyan temples exhibit highest degree of perfection in the art of carving. Here also one can discern the interaction of Nagara and Dravida art traditions.

The Chaluykan kings not only took interest in building temples but also took sufficient interest in extending patronage for the promotion of art of paining. This is very well supported by some of the paintings found in Cave number 1 at Ajanta. The two panels of paintings, one painted on the ceiling and the other on the wall, represent the Persian emperor Khusrau and his queen Shirin and Pulakesin II receiving the return embassy from Persia.

Thus, the Chalukyas of Badami played an important role in the political history of Deccan for nearly two centuries. Their cultural contributions particularly in the fields of polity, religion, art, architecture, painting etc. were sumptuous and substantial.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_dynasty
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simhavishnu
• http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaPallavas.htm
• http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/pallavas.htm
• http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/pallavadynasty.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty
• http://www.importantindia.com/483/pallava-dynasty-pallavas-of-kanchi/
• http://www.importantindia.com/9498/pallava-dynasty/
• http://highwayonlyway.com/tag/chalukya-dynasty/page/4/