17 Major dynasties of south India (753 – 1300 ce)

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The Political History of Deccan between 753 – 1300 CE was marked by the ascendency of the Rashtrakutas of Manyaketa, emergence of Chola power, the Chalukyas of Kalyani and their subordinates. One of the kingdoms that rose to power on the ruins of the Chaluykas of Badami was the Rashtrakutas. Later, the country south of Tungabhadra was united as one state for nearly two centuries under Cholas of Tanjore and Chalukyas of Kalyani. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the two major powers-the Cholas and Chalukyas of Kalyani had became thoroughly exhausted by their conflicts and were on their decline. Their subordinate powers were started to show their new vigor and were ready to take advantage of the weakening of their suzerains and proclaimed independence. The Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai constitute important political forces during 12th and 13th Centuries.

2. Topic I :  Rashtrakutas (753 to 973 CE)

Rashtrakutas were the important dynasty ruling over large parts of the Indian Subcontinent for 220 years from 753 to 973 CE with their capital from Manyakheta (Malkhed in Gulbarga district). Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was the mother tongue .Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta kingdom. His predecessors, Abhimanyu, Nannaraja, Karka I and Indra II were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. Indra II married a Chalukyan princess of Gujarat branch (Lata) and Dantidurga was born to them ,who ruled from 735 to 756 CE. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa from them. During 752-753 he defeated the last Chalukyan ruler Kirtivarman II and established the Rashtrakuta rule. Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in Deccan. He had the titles like ‘Prithvivallabha ‘, ‘Maharajadhiraja ‘, ‘Rajaparameswara‘ etc.

Dantidurga died childless and was succeeded by his uncle, Krishna I (756-774 CE). He completed the overthrowing of the Chalukya power and expanded his new kingdom in all directions. He defeated the Gangas and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and compelled them to acknowledge his Suzerainty. The magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built during his reign.

He was succeeded by Govinda II in 774 CE. He was an easy going monarch, his ambitious brother Dhruva seized the throne for himself in 780 CE.

The next important king of the dynasty was Govinda III (793-814 CE). He achieved victories over Vengi Chalukyas, Pallavas, North Indian kingdoms Gurjaras and Palas.

Govinda III was succeeded by his young son Amoghavarsha (814 – 880 CE) also called Nrupatunga. He was the greatest king among the Rashtrakutas. He had to wage several wars including the Vengi Chalukyas,Gangas, etc and protected his kingdom without any damage from the various menaces. He gave his daughters in marriage to the Vengi Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Gangas .Though he was a great warrior, he loved peace and avoided wars to the best of his ability .Sulaiman, the Arab traveler, who visited his court in 851 CE, gave very good account of the administration of Amoghavarsha. He had several titles and several inscriptions also eulogized him.

Amoghavarsha was succeeded by his son Krishna II (880-914 CE) who in turn was succeeded by Indra III (914-929 CE). He invaded and conquered Kanauj, Paramaras, Banas, and Gurjara Pratiharas and extended his empire. He was succeeded by Amoghavarsha II in 929 CE. It appears that he lost his throne by the intrigues of his younger brother Govinda IV ( 929 – 935 CE).

Krishna III (935-967CE) was the last great ruler and was famous for his expeditions. He marched against Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam battle. He conquered many principalities including Gangavadi, Bundelkhand, Cheras, Pandyas, Chedi, Kanchi, Nolambas, Malwa and erected a victory pillar at Rameswaram. Krishna was a great king brave and able administrator and held the titles like ‘Prithvivallabha‘, VallabhaNarendra ‘, ’Aklavarsha ‘etc. He built several temples in conquered territories including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram. After his death, the power of Rashtrakutas declined.

He was succeeded by his brother Khottiga (967- 972 CE). Paramara Sreeyukha lay seize to Manyakheta and looted the capital. He was succeeded by Karka II during whose time the Rashtrakuta power further worsened. Tailapa II overthrew Karka and laid the foundation for the Chalukyas of Kalyana in 973 CE. Thus the vast and mighty Rashtrakuta empire has eclipsed from the South Indian history.

2.1 Contribution to Indian Culture :

2.1.1 Administration:

The Rashtrakuta empire was the biggest empire in the history of Deccan. It extended from Malwa in the North to Kaveri valley in the South including large parts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Kerala and entire Karnataka and Maharashtra. They brought political unification of Deccan.

The administrative system that they evolved was significant for its many features. The vast kingdom was divided into many divisions like ‘Rashtra‘, ‘Vishaya’, ‘Desa’, ‘Bhukti’. ‘Rashtrapathi’ , ’Vishayapathi’, ’Bhogapathi’ or Bhogikas were the chief officers of these political units. The empire was further divided into Mahamandalas, Mandalas, and ‘Grama‘ was the last unit. Many inscriptions refer the names of various officers like Yuktas, Ayuktas, Niyuktas, Upayuktas, Shanbhaga etc. King was the head of the state and kingship was hereditary. King was assisted and guided by the Council of Ministers. The administration was based on the principles laid in the Hindu scriptures. The Rashtrakutas had a powerful army consisting of infantry, cavalry and Elephants.

Land revenue was the main source of income to the royal treasury. There was an active commerce between the Deccan and Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab trade by maintaining cordial relations with them. Merchants had organized their separate trade guilds called Srenis. There were community guilds also and these trade guilds developed foreign trade. Coins made up of gold, silver and copper called as Suvarna, Gadyana, Darhama, Kalanju Dharana, were in circulation. These coins had impressions of gods and goddesses on one side and the names of the king on the other side along with the year of mint.

2.1.2 Religion:

The renaissance of Hinduism, which began during the Gupta era, got a boost during this period. Saivism and Vaishnavism attained importance. Many Rashtrakuta kings were devotees of Siva, Vishnu and temples were built in their honour. Jainism was the religion of royal patronage. Amoghavarsha was a Jain. Buddhism was on decline due to lack of patronage. Throughout the kingdom people of all faiths received the royal encouragement without any discrimination. Tolerance was the keynote of the administration. The Rashtrakutas have permitted the Arabs to build their mosques on the West Coast. The 9th century Arab traveler, Sulaiman who had visited the court of Amoghavarsha, appreciated the generous religious policy and liberal tolerance of other religions by the Rashtrakutas.

2.1.3 Literature:

This era was a period of transition in the development of Kannada and Sanskrit literatures. Education received greater importance. Salotgi (Indi taluk of Bijapur district) was an important centre of education during the reign of Krishna III.

The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature. The important Sanskrit works of the period were Trivikrama’s Nalacharita, Halayuda’ s Kavirahasya, Jinasena’s Adipurana, Mahaviracharya’s Ganitasarasangraha, Saktayana’s Amoghavriti.

The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of Rashtrakutas. Amoghavarsha’ s Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language. Amoghavarsha was not merely a patron of literature, but himself was a scholar and his contribution to literature was immense.

The trinity poets of this era i.e. Pampa, Ranna and Ponna have made inestimable contribution to Kannada literature. Pampa, was the first Kannada poet who wrote ‘Vikramarjuna Vijaya‘ (Pampa Bharata) and ‘Adipurana‘. Ponna, the court poet of Krishna III, wrote ‘Shanti Purana‘, was honoured with a title ‘Ubhaya Kavichakravarthi’.

One significant factor about the literature of this era is that most of the writers were Jains.

They were great scholars of Sanskrit, Kannada and Prakrit.

2.1.4 Art and Architecture:

Rashtrakuta sculptors and architects have left behind evidence of greatness in their works of art and have occupied a prime place in ancient India .Their art exhibits the grace ,refinement and technical skill is of very high order .They were master-builders and have excavated or constructed the mighty temples. As a result of their liberal patronage, there appeared many great monuments and pieces of art. The Ellora and Elephanta cave temples of the Rashtrakutas strike the visitors and are really breathtaking structures for all ages .The Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was carved out of a monolith ( single rock ), during the period of Krishna I,is an unique achievement and has no parallel in the history of art. It is an architectural marvel with its beautiful structures. V. A. Smith ,the famous historian, remarked that “It is one of the wonders of the world a work of which any national might the proud of an honour to the king under whose patronage it was extended“.

The Elephanta caves, near Bombay, also belonged to the same age. The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith. ’Trimurti ’ or ‘Mahesh Murthi’ is the master – piece of these caves. Besides these two master-pieces, structural temples have also been built at places like Manyakheta, Pattadakkal, Mahakuta, Aihole, Badami, Belur, Sannathi, Rameswaram and at several other places in their lengthy empire.

2.2 Summary:

The Rashtrakuta empire was the biggest empire in Deccan and its boundaries were river Kaveri in the South, Narmada in the North, Bay of Bengal in the East and the Arabian sea in the West. The mighty empire had different branches like Vemulavada, Bodhan, and Gujarat, who ruled independently under the suzerainty of the main branch of Rashtrakutas. They have evolved a sound administrative system which became a significant factor for its many features and became guide to the later rulers. They have patronised Kannada literature, art and architecture.

3. Topic II : The Chalukyas of Kalyani (973-1190 CE)

The Chalukya dynasty is an important dynasty which ruled over southern India. There were two branches of the Chalukyas, the first of them ruled from Badami and the other from Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Kalyani (later Chalukyas or Western Chalukyas) came to power in 973 CE and continued their rule till 1190 CE.

The new dynasty of Kalyani was founded in 973 CE by Taila or Tailapa-II, (973 – 997 CE). The kings of this dynasty were constantly engaged in wars with their neighbours, the Paramaras of Malwa on the north and the Cholas on the South. In all his wars Taila was assisted by his elder son Satyasraya who became the king after his death.

Satyasraya (997-1008 CE) continued the aggressive policy of his father, his chief enemy being the rising Chola power under Rajaraja. At the beginning of the 11th century, the Chalukya country suffered much from the invasion of Rajaraja Chola. After overthrowing of the Rashtrakuta, he spent several years consolidating his sway in the western Deccan over the area between Narmada and Tungabhadra.

Satyasraya was succeeded in 1008 CE by nephew Vikramadiya V who after a short and uneventful reign was followed by his brother Jayasimha II in 1015 CE. Jayasimha had to fight many fonts including invasions of Paramara Bhoja and Chola Rajendra.

Jayasimha was succeeded by his son, Someswara I (1042 CE), he founded Kalyani and shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani. He continued the war began his father against the Bhoja of Malwa and received his submission after a raid on his capital Dhara. He extended his empire across Vidarbha, Kosala and Kalinga. The Kakatiya chieftains assisted Someswara in his wars and received from him as fief the Anumakonda vishaya.

In spite of many reverses he maintained the struggle with the Cholas with undiminished vigor till the end of his life. He was a great diplomat than a warrior. He had great faith in himself and succeeded in handing over it to his many able generals including his famous son Vikramaditya VI.

The most famous king of this dynasty was Vikramaditya VI (1076 – 1126 CE). He defeated the Hoysala king of Mysore and Rajendra Chola II. He is also believed to have started a new era known as the Chalukyan Vikrama era. Vikramaditya’s reign, in general was peaceful and his court was adorned by learned poets. The famous poet Bilhana, the author of Vikramankadevacharita and Vijgneswara, the author of the well known work Mitakshara flourished during his reign.

Someswara III (1126 – 1138 CE) was also a peaceful monarch and in his reign the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, threw of his allegiance to the Chalukyan power by establishing Hoysala dynasty. Vishnuvardhana continued his aggression in the reigns of his two sons Someswara III, Jagadekamalla II (1138 – 1155 CE) and his younger brother Taila III (1150 – 1163 CE). During this period the Deccan was divided into smaller kingdoms of similar status, with some of which the Cholas were occasionally at war.

Later Chalukyan empire began to decline. By 1157 CE the Kalachuri Bijjala assumed imperial title and a new era may be said to have started. Kalachuri revolution now ran its course and Bijjala set up rule in the Chalukyan capital. Three of his sons ruled in quick successions upto 1183 CE, but none of them had the ability of Bijjalas usurpation to good account.

In 1183 CE Someswara IV, the son the Taila III , became the ruler after sweeping away the last remnants of the Kalachuri power and thus putting an end to the confusion they had caused. However, the Yadava feudatory of Someswara IV, Bhillama was the first to realize the weakness of king’s position and took advantage of it. The dynasty came to an end in 1190 CE, when its last ruler Someswara IV was overthrown by the Yadavas of Devagiri.

4. Topic III : The Yadavas of Devagiri (1190- 1307 CE)

After 1190 CE the empire of Kalyani split into three parts, namely the kingdom of Devagiri founded by the Yadavas, the kingdom of Warangal governed by the Kakatiyas and the kingdom of Dwarasumudra ruled by the Hoysalas.

The independent Yadava kingdom of Devagiri was founded by Bhillama (1185-1193 CE). He defeated both the Kalachuri and Western Chalukyas and made himself master of the greater part of the Chalukya empire in Deccan. He established his capital at Devagiri (modern Daulatabad) and henceforth the family was known as the “Yadavas of Devagiri’. Bhillama was at first more successful and over ran the dominions of Hoysala. Later Ballala II defeated Bhillama and forced him to leave the Hoysalas country.

Bhillama’ s son Jaitrapala or Jaitugi defeated the Hoysalas, wrested back the territories acquired by them from his grandfather and established the undisputed supremacy of the family in Deccan. He made extensive conquests in the North, conquered Lata. He also defeated king of Malwa, a Muhammadan ruler of the North, the Kalachuris, and Chedis of Chattisgarh & Jabbalpur. He also declared war against Kakatiya Rudradeva, killed him and took his nephew Ganapatideva as captive (1196 CE).

Jaitugi was succeeded by his son Singhana (1200 – 1247 CE) under whom the Yadava empire attained its greatest extent. He invaded Gujarat twice in 1231and 1237 CE while in the South he waged a war against Hoysala Ballala II. He continued the pressure against the Hoyasal’s in the reign of Narasimha II.

The Yadava throne was descended to Singhana’s grandson Krishna I (1247 – 1260 CE). His reign was also remarkable for its literary activity. He was a great patron of religion and performed many sacrifices.

Krishna I was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva (1260-1271 CE). He fought a successful war against Kakatiya Rudrama, capturing her elephants, some of her insignia but spared her life as she was a woman. Hostilities against the Hoysalas continued into the reign of Ballala.

Ramachandra (1271 –1307CE), the last ruler of this dynasty, was suddenly attacked by Alla-ud-Din Khilji, the then governor of Kara. Ramachandra was defeated but pardoned. However, the rulers of Devagiri, proved unequal to the task of defending the Deccan, against the northern invaders. His territory was again attacked by Malik -Kafur, a lieutenant of Alla-ud-Din and he was taken as prisoner in 1306 – 1307 CE . Then the Deccan became part of the Khilji empire.

Contribution to Culture

The rulers of Devagiri encouraged art and letters. Literacy was also encouraged. Singhana’s chief astronomer was Changadeva, the grandson of famous astronomer Bhaskaracharya. He founded a college of astronomy for the study of works of Bhaskaracharya. The age of the later Yadavas saw the composition of famous works of Hemadri, Bopadeva and Jnaneswara. The great Maratha saint Jnaneswara flourished during the reign of Ramachandra and completed his great Marathi exposition of Bhagavadgita on the banks of the river Narmada in 1290 CE.

5.  Topic IV : The Kakatiyas (1000 – 1323 CE)

5. 1 Early Rulers

Kakatiyas are one of the major dynasties that ruled over the present Telangana and Andhra regions, parts of Karnataka, Orissa and Tamilnadu from 1000 to 1323 CE with their capital at Orugallu (Warangal). The early members of this dynasty were in the service of Rasthrakutas and acted as generals. Later they shifted allegiance to the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Taking advantage of the disturbed political condition of the Deccan in the 11th century CE, the Kakatiyas established their power.

The 323 years rule of the Kakatiyas can be divided into two periods. The first period extended from 1000 to 1157 CE. During this period by their steadfast loyalty to Kalyani Chalukyas, they strengthened the position of the dynasty and laid foundation for its subsequent greatness. The early Kakatiya chiefs like Beta I, Prola I, Beta II and Prola II became the loyal subordinates of the Kalyani Chalukyas upto Jagadekamalla II. The disintegration of the western Chalukyan empire during the reign of Taila III and the rise of the Kalachuri Bijjala gave a fertile opportunity for the Kakatiya to assert independence.

5.2 Independent Rulers

The second period from 1158 to 1323 CE saw their rise and downfall. The outstanding rulers of this dynasty were Rudradeva (1158 – 1195 CE), Ganapatideva (1198 – 1262 CE), Rudramadevi (1262 – 1289 CE), and Prataparudra (1289 – 1323 CE). For nearly three centuries they shaped the Telugu history and civilization and fostered the Telugu language and literature.

Rudradeva (1158 – 1195 CE) was the first king of the dynasty to over throw the subordinate position of the Kakatiyas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and asserted independence. The Anumakonda inscription of 1162 CE, a lengthy document of historical value, gives graphic description of his military exploits. He established his sway over the coastal Andhra by defeating the Velanadu Cholas, the subordinates of the Chalukyas-Cholas. Rudradeva in order to meet the increasing needs of the administration of the independent kingdom laid foundation for a new fort at Warangal. This later on became the capital of the Kakatiya kingdom.

Rudradeva was a great patron of art and literature. He constructed the majestic Rudreswara Temple (1000 pillared temple) at Anumakonda. He was the author of the Sanskrit work Nitisara and patronized the Saivite scholars like Palkurti Somanatha. Rudradeva died in the battle with Jaitugi, the Yadava king in 1195 CE and was succeeded by his younger brother Mahadeva (1195 – 1198 CE). He ruled only a few years and lost his life in the battle with Yadavas.

Ganapatideva (1199-1262 CE) was the greatest of the Kakatiya rulers. The death of Mahadeva in Yadava invasion and captive of Ganapatideva at Devagiri led to the outbreak of disorder in the kingdom. Ganapatideva’s prison did not hold long; he was set free and sent back to the kingdom. The reign of Ganapatideva, though began under unfavorable circumstances was destined to become one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of Andhra country.

In the course of long reign extending over sixty years, Ganapatideva brought a great part of contemporary Andhra Pradesh and Telangana regions under his control. Being an energetic monarch, he understood the need of unifying the entire Andhradesa from protecting against the aggressions of Pandyas, the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. He took advantage of dismemberment of the western Chalukyas and Chalukya-Cholas and brought the entire Telugu speaking area under his sway either by war or by diplomacy.

He was a great general who lost only one war and that too towards the end of his career with Jatavarma Sundara Pandya at Muthukur, near Nellore. This defeat of Ganapatideva considered with his final retirement from politics and relinquished power in favour of his eldest daughter Rudramadevi.

Ganapatideva was considered to be the greatest king, warrior and multifaceted personality. The praise worthy aspect of his administration was the attention bestowed on the development of irrigation and Agrarian economy. Ganapatideva also paid great attention in reviving the sea-born trade of the Andhra country. The sea-born trade received setback during the proceeding regime owing to the indifferent attitude of the Chalukya – Chola kings towards foreign traders. It was revived by Gangaptideva as indicated by the Motupalli inscription (Abhaya sasana) of 1245 CE. He gave required protection and the desired safety to the traders, both native and foreign.

Rudramadevi (1262-1289 CE) ascended the Kakatiya throne in 1262 CE and ruled 27 years. The accession of Rudramadevi to the Kakatiya throne was a memorable event in the annals of South India, for she was the only woman who ruled over the Telugu speaking area under man’s name. Soon after her accession the Yadava king Mahadeva invaded and besieged Warangal. Rudrama was a woman of fearless courage; she fought 15 days and defeated the Yadava forces and even chased upto the walls of Devagiri. To commemorate the victory she took the title Rajagajakesari – a title which was held earlier by her father Ganapatideva. Rudramadevi in another expedition proceeded to south to suppress the revolt of a chieftain Ambadeva supported by Pandyas and Yadavas. It is known from the Chandupatla inscription that the combined forces scored a victory, Rudrama and her general Mallikarjuna lost their lives in the battle field.

Rudramadevi, though a woman, was undoubtedly one of the greatest rulers of Andhra. She was the valiant and courageous fighter with great abilities of a general to lead her men in war. She took active part in the administration of kingdom. In her long rule she introduced several innovations in the provincial administration. Marco polo, the Venetian traveler, who paid visit to kingdom, speaks highly of her administrative qualities benign rule and greatness.

Prataparudra (1289-1323 CE), ascended the throne after the death of his grandmother Rudramadevi. He had to fight battles throughout his reign against either internal rebels or the external forces. He suppressed the revolt of Ambadeva and re-established the Kakatiya dynasty in south and south west Andhra. The Kakatiya kingdom reached its watermark during this period and the southern frontier even touched upto Kanchi. Thus Prataparudra chastised Ambadeva, curbed the Yadavas and crumbled the power of Pandyas.

5.3 Muslim invasions and Decline

During the reign of Prataparudra, the Delhi Sultanates began to knock at his gates and he was compelled to spend the rest of his reign for the protection of his kingdom. Allauddin Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi, who crossed the Vindhyas and invaded the South Indian kingdoms. The earliest expedition of Allauddin Khilji against the Kakatiya kingdom took place in 1303 CE and the second in 1307 CE third in 1318. The death of Alluddin Khilji and weak successors brought change in the Delhi Sultanate and as a result the throne of Delhi was captured by Tughlaqs. During the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq two invasions were sent against Kakatiyas under the leadership of his son Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in 1321 and 1323 CE.

The Kakatiyan forces faced the attack skillfully but the kakatiyas were ultimately beaten. Prataparudra and his family were taken as prisoners under the command of Khusrukhan. On the way to Delhi, Prataparudra committed suicide on the banks of the river Narmada. Thus ended the glory of Kakatiyas and Andhra became a part and parcel of the Tughlaq empire in 1323 CE.

6. Topic V : The Pandyas of Madurai

The Pandyas of Madurai were one of the ancient ruling dynasties of South India. The kingdom of the Pandyas is mentioned in Ashok’s edicts and in Megasthanes account of India. During the Sangam Age, they played an important role in the political as well as Cultural History. Hiuen Tsang, the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, who visited Kanchi towards the middle of the seventh century CE, tells us that the Pandyan princes were feudatories of the Pallavas.

Rajasimha I and Varguna were the important Pandya rulers of 8th Century. Varguna who ruled from 765 – 815 CE was described as the greatest imperialist of his dynasty. During his reign, the conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas started. Varguna defeated the Pallava king and subdued the local chiefs. It is not possible to write a connected and early history of the Pandyan kingdom upto 9th Century.

The Pandyas came into political limelight in the 9th century CE, when they joined hands with the Cholas and defeated the Pallavas. Varguna’s son Srimar Srivallabha who ruled from 815 to 862 CE continued the aggressive policy, invaded Ceylon, defeated the confederacy consisting of the Gangas, Cholas, Pallavas, Kalingas and Magadhas, who formed under the leadership of Pallava ruler. Vargunavarman II (862 – 880 CE), Parantaka Viranarayana (880-  900 CE), Maravarman II (900 – 920 CE) were the rulers of 10th century CE. They suffered many reverses due to the rise of Cholas. This put an end to the independence of the Pandyas.

In the last quarter of 10th century and at beginning of the 11th century, another attempt was made by the Pandyas to revive their past glory but they failed on account of opposition from the Chalukya-Chola king Kulottunga I.

During the 12th century, the Pandyas continued to grow in strength. They carried on their struggle with rulers of Ceylon and Cholas. Kulottunga III, attacked once against the Pandyan territory and overpowered Jatavarman Kulasekhara (1190 – 1226 CE).

Sundara Pandya another important king ruled from 1226 – 1238 CE. He defeated the Chola king Kulottunga III. This victory ”ushered into existence the glorious period of Pandyan imperialism which remained intact throughout the 13th century CE”. The Pandyas had suppressed the Cholas, the dominate power in the Tamil country and have maintained this position in the subsequent century.

Jatavarman Sundarapandya (1251-1268 CE) was one of the most famous warriors and conquerors of South India under whom the Pandyan power attained its greatest splendor. He fought many wars and rapidly extended his sway to Nellore in East-Coast by defeating the Kakatiya forces, and to Ceylon, confining the Hoysalas to the Mysore. Kanchipuram became a second capital, while Ceylon and Kerala were firmly held administered for some time. In his wars Sundara commended the active cooperation of other princes of the royal family Jatavarman Virapandya (1253 CE) being most prominent among them. Sundarapandya who died in 1268 CE was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekhara I, also a great ruler. During this period the rule of Pandya kingdom was shared among several princes of the royal family, one among them enjoying primary over the rest.

Marcopolo claimed to have visited the Pandyan kingdom in 1288 and 1293 CE and has left a vivid description of the richness of the land, the prosperity of its trade.

The Pandyan kingdom was however short lived and their capital Madurai was plundered by Delhi Sultanates in the beginnings of 14th Century. Thus, Madurai and Pandya territory came under the control of Delhi Sultanate. Petty Pandya chiefs continued to rule over Madurai as vassals, first of the Muslims and then of Vijayanagara. The Pandya Kingdom finally merged into the Vijayanagara empire.

7. Topic VI : The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra

During the 12th and 13th centuries, chiefs belonging to family named Hoysala attained considerable power in the Mysore country. The Hoysala’s claimed descent from the line of Yadhu. They were the descendants of a general of the Chalukyan king, Vikramaditya.

Vishnuvardhana (1110 – 1152 CE) was the first who established a kingdom for the Hoysala family by conquering the land at one time held by the Gangas. He made Dwarasamudra, near Mysore as his capital. He was a vigorous ruler and extended his empire by carrying on successful wars against the southern powers, namely the Cholas and the Pandyas. He finally drove out the Cholas from Mysore. Thus, Vishnuvardhana established his authority over an extensive territory which included nearly the whole of Mysore and adjacent lands. In his beliefs, he appears to have been originally a jain but was converted to Vaishanvism by Ramajuna, a great reformer. He signalized his change of faith by the erection of many temples of unsurpassed magnificence. He was a great patron of architecture and sculpture.Vishnuvardhana was succeeded by his son Narasimha I (1152 – 1173 CE).

Vira Ballala – II was one of the greatest kings of the Hoysala Empire. He ruled between 1173-  1220 CE. During his rule, Hoysala kingdom became an independent empire. He himself styled as Maharajadhiraja. He signalized his reign by defeating Brahma, the general of Someswara IV, Chalukya and also the forces of Bhillama V of Yadava at the battle of Lakkundi (Dharwad District) and started a new era beginning in 1191 CE. He was a great patron of Kannada literature. Janna, one of most influential Kannada poets of the 13th century, graced his court and was honored with the title Kavichakravarthi (“Emperor among poets”)

Narasimha II (1220 – 1238 CE) seems to have lost some of the territory of his father but he claims victories over Pandyas and Kadambas. He was succeeded by Someswara and Narasimha III.

The last ruler of the dynasty was Vira Ballala III whose inscription is dated from 1292 to 1343 CE. The Yadavas and Hoysalas were to last until the 14th century, when new arrivals entered politics of North India, the Turkish and Afghan Sultans of Delhi who intervened in the affairs of Deccan. About 1310 CE, his kingdom was ravaged by the Muslim hosts under Malik Kafur who sacked the Hoysala capital, Dwarasamudra.

Vira Ballala was detained in Delhi for 3 years and then released. On his return he set about organizing the defenses of his country against further Muslim attacks, later the Hoysala dynasty absorbed in the raising of the new state of Vijayanagar.

7.1 The Hoysala Art and Architecture

The Hoysala rulers were great builders and under them architecture and sculpture received great encouragement. They developed a new style of architecture. The temples built by them are not square but star shaped having richly cared plinths. The best known example of the Hoysala style is the famous Hoyasaleswara Temple at Halebid or Dwarasamudra in Hassan District. It is known for its sculptural perfection. It is star shaped made of grayish soap stone and consists of two similar shrines. Each shrine contains a sanctuary, a hall with pillars, and two compartments. The entire temple is covered with sculptures of very high workmanship.

The Hoysalas also built marvelous temples at Somanathpur and Belur. The Kesava temple at Somanathapur and Chennakesava temple at Belur are typical specimens of the Hoysala architecture. The Hoysala temples are generally ornamented with an enormous mass of sculptures and statues of very good quality.

8. Summary :

The political history of Deccan and the South from the middle of 8th century was dominated by the Rashtrakutas, Cholas, Chalukyas of Kalyani, Yadavas,Kakatiyas Pandyas, Hoysalas etc., Apart from the main dynasties, there were lesser rulers of smaller areas in Deccan and some of them claimed descent from the lineages of the main dynasties. South India has a character of its own administration and its history generally independent from that of the rest of India.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_India
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty
• http://templenet.com/Karnataka/kalyani_chalukya.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty
• http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chalukya_dynasty
• http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaPandyas.htm
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empire
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_the_Hoysala_Empire