18 Major dynasties of north India( 647-1200 ce)

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The political unity of Northern India achieved under Harsha was broken after his death. Thereafter, a number of lineages vied for control over Kanauj. Taking advantage of this political confusion, the Rajputs established their kingdoms on the ruins of Harsha’s empire. They became so prominent that the period (647-1192 CE) from the death of Harsha till the Muslim conquest of Northern India in the 12th century is called the Rajput period of Indian history. Even after that many Rajput states continued to survive for a long time. In the period of Muslim aggression, the Rajputs were the main defenders of Hindu religion and Culture. This is very important period in the history of North India, for it witnessed substantial changes in the political, social, economic and religious sectors. We may divide this age, for the sake of convenience into two phases. The first phase starts from 8th century and terminates at 10th century whereas the second phase starts from the 11th century up to the beginning of 13th century CE. The first phase is dominated by the “Age of the three kingdoms”, i.e. the Rashtrakutas of western Deccan, the Pratiharas of Malwa and Gujarat and the Palas of Bengal. Thus Kanauj, Gujarat and Malwa became a bone of contention between the above major powers. This geo-political conflict inaugurated the famous triangular conflict between these dynasties of North India and Deccan.

2. The Rajput Kingdoms Origin

There were divergent views among the historians regarding the origin of the Rajputs. The use of the term Rajaputra for specific clans or as a collective term for various clans emerged by the 12th century. The theory of ‘Agnikula’ origin of Rajputs is given in Prithviraj Raso of Chand Bardai. The Agnikula Rajputs included the Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Paramaras and Chauhans. They were also considered as the descendents of the foreign invaders and the Indian Kshatriyas. The foreign invaders were Indianised and absorbed into Indian society. Many legends of Rajputs support this theory. V.A. Smith the famous historian viewed that the Rajputs were a mixed race. The Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chauhans and Chalukyas were decidedly descendants of foreign tribes but the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Rathors of Rajputana, the Solankis and the Chandellas of Bundlekhand were descendants of Kshatriya families of the Aryan Origin. Therefore it can be said that diverse elements constitute in shaping of the Rajput clan.

2.1 The Pratiharas of Kanauj (The Gurjara Pratiharas)

The Gurjara Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers. The dynasty was founded by a brahmana named Harichandra, in the area around Jodhpur in Rajputana. According to their epigraphical records, the Pratiharas claim descent from the Kshatriya Lakshmana (brother of Rama) of the solar race famed in the Ramayana. The prevailing view among modern scholars is that they are a branch of the Gurjara tribe of foreigners closely allied to the Huns. They entered India in the early years of the 6th century CE, founded an extensive kingdom in Southern Rajputana with its capital at Bhilmal. They remained independent rulers during Harsha’ s reign. After the death of Harsha, they captured Kanauj in the beginning of the 8th century CE.

The first great ruler of this dynasty was Nagabhatta I who ruled from 725 to 740 CE. He carried on a successful war against the Arabs of Sindh. This king’s line soon became most powerful Pratihara family, eclipsing the Jodhpur branch. Nagabhata’s control extended over parts of Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat. His capital was Ujjain.

Nagabhatta’s successors Devaraja, Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II, greatly extended their kingdom. Nagabhatta II may be regarded as the founder of the dynasty. His power was recognized by the rulers of Sindh, Deccan, Vidarbha and Kalinga. He also defeated the king of Bengal Dharmapala. The expansion of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom involved constant conflicts with other contemporary powers such as the Palas and Rashtrakutas. But his power in the north was short lived as he suffered defeat at the hands of Govinda III, the king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The defeat of the Nagabhatta gave an opportunity to re-establish the supremacy of Palas and there was a decline in the power of the Pratiharas.

Nagabhatta’ s II grandson Mihir Bhoja, popularly known as Bhoj-Raja I proved himself to be the greatest of the Pratihara emperors. He ruled for over 50 years from 840 CE. to 890 CE. A new and glorious chapter began in the history of Pratiharas with the accession of king Bhoja. Bhoja was defeated by the Palas, Rastrakutas and Kalachuris in the first part of his reign, but subsequently managed to come back. He established his authority over the Chandellas of Bundelkhand. He won victories against Devapala, the ruler of Bengal and also against the Rashtrakutas. In the words of R.C. Majumdar “Bhoja had the reputation of a strong ruler, able to maintain peace in his kingdom and defend it against external dangers, he stood as a bulwark of the defense against the Muslim aggression and left this task as a sacred legacy to his successors ”. Kanauj was made the imperial city of northern India by the Pratiharas. The empire of Bhoja Raja was visited by the Arab merchant Sulaiman who spoke highly of the strength of his cavalry and of the peace that reigned in his kingdom. Bhoja Raja was a worshipper of Siva.

Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I(885-910 CE), under him the Pratihara empire reached its glory. He conquered the Magadha and north Bengal. He was a patron of learning. The poet Rajasekhara, who wrote the Karpuramanjari, Balaramayana, Balabharata and Kavyamimamsa, was the ornament of his court.

2.1.1. Decline of the Pratiharas

The Pratihara kingdom was declined after the death of Mahendrapala. His successors were not able to keep the vast kingdom intact. The Gurjara-Pratiharas subsequently suffered several defeats. In the early 10th century, during the time of Mahipala the Rashtrakuta king Indra III completely devastated the city of Kanauj. He plundered the land as far as Prayaga. There was another Rashtrakuta invasion led by Krishna III. The Pala rulers took advantage of this and recovered some of their ancestral territories upto the eastern bank of the river Son. The feudatory chiefs and provincial governors of the Gurjara-Pratiharas gradually started asserting independence, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to the area around Kanauj. The decline and authority of Pratiharas saw the division of Pratihara empire into the hands of Chalukyas of Anhilwada, the Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Paramaras of Malwa, Chauhans of Sakambari, Gahawars of southern Rajputana, Chedis of Dahala,

The last blow to this kingdom was dealt by Mahmud of Ghazni who invaded Kanauj in 1019 CE and occupied it. The successors of Pratiharas like Trilochanapala, Nisapala continued upto the end of 11th century. In 1090 CE. another Rajput dynasty known as the Rathors or Gahawars conquered Kanauj and with this the great Rajput dynasty of the Pratiharas disappeared from the political scene.

2.2 The Rathors or Gahawars (1090 – 1194 CE)

The Rathors or Gahawars ruled over Kanauj for more than a century (1090 -1194 CE.). The founder of this dynasty was Chandradeva. His kingdom included Banaras, Ayodhya and Kanauj. Govindachandra, grandson of Chandradeva, enjoyed long reign (1112 – 1155 CE ) and succeeded in restoring the glory of the Kanauj kingdom. He annexed some parts of Magadha under the Palas. He also conquered Darsana or Malwa. He was succeeded by Vijayachandra. He drove out Amir Kushro from Lahore.

The last great ruler of this dynasty was Jaichandra well known in popular legend as Raja Jaichand(1170-1194). He was an enemy of his neighbor, Prithviraj Chauhan, ruler of Delhi and Ajmer. This enmity between the two gave an opportunity to Muhamad of Ghori to defeat both of them and conquer their kingdoms.

2.3 The Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer and Delhi

The Chauhans ruled over eastern Rajasthan. They started their career as feudatories of the Pratiharas and assisted them in holding back the Arab advance. Later they declared their independence. Most of their kings adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja.

The Chauhans established their kingdom first in Ajmer. The founder of this dynasty was Vishaladeva, who ruled from 1158 to 1164 CE. In about 1163 CE. He conquered Delhi from a Tomara Chief, Anagapala and then shifted his capital to Delhi. Vishaladeva’ s nephew, Rai pithora or Prithiviraj was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He played an important role in the history of India at the time of its conquest by the Muslims. There was a rivalry between Prithviraj Chuhan and Raja Jaichand of Kanauj. That was due to the fact that Prithviraj Chauhan had forcibly taken away the daughter of Jaichand at the time of Svayamvara.. He was a warrior king who extended the boundaries of the Chauhan kingdom by his military campaigns. He conquered Bundelkhand (Mahoba) from the Chandellas in 1182 CE.

The Military conquests of Prithviraj have been described in the long epic poem Prithviraj Raso composed by Chand Bardai.

In the 1st battle of Tarain 1191 CE. Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori who invaded India. But in the following year, Muhammad Ghori makes a fresh attack. This time he defeated and killed Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 CE. With the death of Prithviraj, the sun of Rajput glory set for ever. Prithviraj Chauhan was the most popular hero of the Rajput period and his exploits are the subject of folk songs and ballads till today.

2.4 The Paramaras of Malwa

The Paramaras of Malwa rose on the ruins of the Pratihara empire of Kanauj. The Paramara or Pawar clan was supposed to have emerged from the Agnikund of Mount Abu, and had established its kingdom in Malwa. The early Paramaras were vassals of Rashtrakutas. Upendra founded the new dynasty in about 820 CE. Munja was the seventh king of the Paramara dynasty. He was a great patron of learning and himself a poet. The Paramaras were temporarily eclipsed when they lost Malwa to the Pratiharas. Their power revived in the mid 10th century.

The most famous ruler from this dynasty was Raja Bhoja (1018-1060 CE.) with his capital at Dhara. Bhoja tried to regenerate Hindu society. He also fought against muslims. It was probably his power which prevented Muhammad Ghori to return by the route, he had taken to reach Somanath in 1024 CE.

Apart from a great warrior, he was an accomplished scholar. He was a great patron of Sanskrit learning and founded a Sanskrit college in his capital. He wrote number of books on grammar, poetry, astronomy and architecture. He was also a great builder and is believed to have been built 104 temples and also a beautiful lake known as Bhojpur lake.

The power of the Paramara dynasty came to an end with the death of Raja Bhoja.

2.5 The Chandellas of Bundelkhand

The Chandella dynasty of Bundelkhand was one of the 36 Rajput clans. Chandellas were described as the most significant culturally as well as politically among the former feudatories of the Pratiharas in central India. They played an important role in the political history of India for about three hundred years. Their inscriptions trace their descent to a mythical ancestor named Chandratreya. The early Chandellas were petty Gond chiefs in the Chhatarpur kingdom in Madhya Pradesh. The historical founder of the dynasty was Nannuka, who can be placed in the first quarter of 9th century. Inscriptions connect the early kings of the dynasty with the capital at Khajuraho. They defeated neighboring Pratihara rulers and extended their kingdom up to Yamuna in the north and Narmada in the south. The Chandella kingdom expanded steadily under the early kings such as Jayashakti and Vijayashakti.

Harsha another ruler (900-925 CE) helped the Pratihara ruler Mahipala to recover his throne after it was captured by the Rashtrakuta Indra III. The Chandella’s took advantage of the decline of the Pratiharas and Palas to assert their Independence. Mohoba was their capital and Kalinjar was an important fort.

2.5.1 Dhanga (950 – 998 CE)

Dhanga was a great ruler of this dynasty. He took the title of Maharajadhiraja. He is well known for his wars against Mahmud of Ghazni. Several of Khajuraho temples were built during his reign.

Kirtivarman, another king of this dynasty, is remembered for the beautiful lake known as Kirti Sagar which he built near his capital.

The last ruler of Chandellas was Parmal, who was defeated by Prithviraj in 1182 CE and from whom Qutb-ud-din Aibak captured Kalinjar in 1203 CE. After this the Chandellas sank into obscurity and Bundelkhand passed into the hands of the Muslims.

2.5.2 Chandella Architecture

Chandellas were creative builders in their major towns and strongholds, above all in their capital, Khajuraho. The Chandella princes were great builders of temples and lakes. The embankments are gigantic structures faced with stone and sometimes crowned by magnificent temples of granite. Chandella architecture is different from their sandstone successors at Khajuraho. A large group of these temples still exists at Khajurajo in Bundel khand. These temples were built during the period 900-1150 CE. The Kandariya temple is famous for its artistic excellence. The architecture of the Chandellas is considered as one of the supreme achievements of Indian architecture.

2.6 The Tomaras of Delhi

The Tomaras of Delhi had proved more than once their right to be the defenders of the gateway to the Gangetic plains. Tomara kingdom was adjacent to the Chahamanas. The Tomaras ruled the Haryana country from their capital Dhillika (Delhi), initially acknowledged Pratihara paramount. In the 10th century they were involved in conflict with the Chahamanas.

In 1043 CE, Mahipala Tomar, captured Hansi, Thaneswar, Nagarkot and many other forts. Mahipala Tomar advanced as far as Lahore, but he failed to capture the same. In spite of this, the Tomaras were attacked by their Rajput neighbours. Under these circumstances, the Tomaras changed their policy and entered an alliance with the muslims against their Rajput enemies. They continued to rule Haryana country until the middle of 12th century when they were overthrown by the Chahamana king Vigraharaja V.

2.7 The Kalachuris

The Kalachuri dynasty ruled over the regions south of the Nalanda and north of the Godavari river. This region is known as Chedi country, also sometimes referred to as Dahala – Mandala. Its capital was Tripuri near Jabalpur. Kokkala I, the earliest king of the dynasty, probably ascended the throne around 845 CE, embroiled in conflicts with the Pratiharas, and their feudatories. Later kings included Shankaragana, Yuvaraja and Lakshmanaraja. Lakshmanaraja was the independent ruler of the Chedi country in 10th century. Kalachuri power suffered reversal during the reign of Yuvaraja II, with defeats at the hands of Chalukya Taila II and Munja, the Paramara king of Malwa. This was followed by the recovery under Kokkala II. Karna, Gangeyadeva, Vikramaditya, Jayasima and Vijayasimha were the later Kalachuri rulers. They fought against the Chendellas of Bundelkhand and the Paramaras of Malwa.

On accoungt of rise of the independent dynasties of Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri in Deccan and the Baghala Rajputs, the Chedi kingdom got declined.

2.8 The Chalukya Dynasty of Solanki or Anhilwara

The Chalukya family had three branches. The oldest branch ruled from Mattamayura in central India. Its earliest rulers were Simhavarman, Sadhanva and Avanivarman.

Another line Chalukya (Solanki) house of Anhilwara or Anahilapataka, identified with modern Patan in Gujarat, was founded by Mularaja in 9th century CE

A Third branch was founded by Barappa in Lata, with its political centre at Broach in Southern Gujarat.

Mularaja of Anhilwada waged wars against Lakha of Cutch, Barappa, the ruler of Lata and Vigraharaja Chahamana of Sakambhari. His power diminished due to the invasions of the Chahamanas and the Chalukyas of Lata. Another defeat at the hands of the Paramaras led Mularaja to take refuge with the Rashtrakuta king but he was able to recover his kingdom. As a devotee of Siva, he built many temples and honored the learned Brahmanas.

The next important ruler was Bhima-I, nephew of Mularaja. Bhima ruled for about forty two years from 1021 – 1063 CE. During his time the famous Somanath Temple was plundered by Muhammad of Ghazni.

Bhima-I was followed by his son Karna in 1063-93 CE. He built numerous temples, dug tanks and founded a city after his name, now called as Ahmadabad.

Karna’s successor was Jayasimha Siddharaja (1093-1143 CE.). He defeated the Chauhans of Nadol (Jodhpur state). He waged wars against Paramara of Malwa, and Bundelkhand of Madanavarma. But Madanavarma defeated Siddharaja. According to Prabandha Chintamani, Jayasimha Siddharaja maintained friendly relation with the king of Dahala (The Kalachuri Raja of Tripuri, Lord of the Kasi. Jayasimha erected number of temples in his kingdom and honored the celebrated Jaina Acharya, Hemachandra.

After the death of Jayasimha, without leaving any male issue, the throne was seized by Kumarapala. He overcame all opposition to his accession. He pursued a policy of active militarism. Kuramapala is said to have rebuilt the temple of Somanath. According to epigraphs, he was a devotee of Siva. He prohibited the slaughter of animals throughout his vast dominions. Kumarapala died on 1172 CE. We do not get much information regarding the later rulers of Gujarat.

3. The Palas of Bengal

There was anarchy and confusion for more than a century in Bengal after the death of Sasanka, the Gauda ruler. The people of Bengal developed a fine political sense and realized the necessity of a strong central authority. Hence, they elected Gopala as their king. At the time of his selection, he was already a leading chief who had made his mark as a ruler. Thus he founded the famous Pala dynasty under which Bengal was to enjoy a period of prestige and prosperity undreamt in her early periods. Gopala ruled from 750 – 770 CE. and proved himself worthy of their trust. He consolidated his position in the two Bengals, eastern and western.

Dharmapala (770-810 CE)

Dharmapala, the son of Gopala was the real founder of the dynasty. In the course of long reign, he raised Bengal to the position of the premier state in northern India, and did much to restore the greatness of the old imperial city of Pataliputra. He waged successful wars against his neighbors and extended the kingdom far beyond Kanauj up to Gandhara in the western Punjab. He held a durbar at Kanuaj, installing Chakrayudha on the throne. This durbar was attended by many vassal chiefs. The nucleus of Dharmapala’s empire was Bengal and Bihar, which came under his direct control. Further to the west and south, the ruler of Punjab, western hill states, Rajaputana, Malwa and Berar acknowledged his sovereignty. According to the tradition preserved in the Svayambu purana, Nepal was also a vassal state. Dharmapala was a great patron of Buddhism. He was the founder of the Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila, which developed into a great centre of learning and culture. He also founded the viharas at Somapuri and Odantapuri.

Devapala 810-850 CE

He was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty. Devapala is said to have received tributes from the rulers of the whole of North India from Himalayas to the Vindhyas, and from the Eastern to the western Oceans. His inscriptions claim that his military campaigns led him as far as Kamboja in the west and the Vindhyas in the south, exterminated Utkala of Kalinga, conquered Pragyothisha, curbed the pride of the Huns, and destroyed the Rahstrakutas and Gurjaras. Devapala too was a patron of Buddhism. He constructed many temples and monasteries in Magadha. Art and Architecture received a fresh impetus.

The successors of Devapala were, however, weak. They were not able to maintain the glory and dignity of the kingdom for a long time. They suffered defeat in the hands of Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas. The subordinate rulers of Assam and Orissa assumed independence. There was a revival of Pala power in the late 10th century under Mahipala I and another brief recovery in 11th century followed by a decline.

A major portion of Bengal passed into the hands of the Senas towards the end of the 11th century CE. Later the Muslims under their generals Bakhtiyar Khilji conquered Bengal towards the end of the 12th century CE.

3.1. Importance of the Pala kings (Bengal)

Under Pala’s rule Bengal became one of the greatest powers of northern India. About the Pala dynasty V A Smith says that it deserves remembrance as one of the most remarkable of Indian dynasties. No other royal line in an important kingdom, same as that of the Andhras, endured so long for four and half centuries. The reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala were a period of marked intellectual and artistic activity. The Pala rulers were Buddhists and founded the famous monastery at Vikramasila in Magadha. They took active interest in public works. The kings maintained friendly relations with distant countries like Sumatra and Tibet. The great Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya was built under their patronage. During their rule, sculpture both in stone and metal was practiced with remarkable success. The Pala kings were all Zealous Buddhists. They spread of Buddhism in Tibet was largely due to them.

4. The Senas of Bengal

The Sena dynasty was founded by a chief named Samantasena. The Senas were Brahmins of the Deccan and were feudatories of the Palas. They took advantage of the weakness of the later Pala rulers and occupied most of Bengal in the 11th century CE

Vijayasena (1119-1158 CE) was the real founder of the dynasty. He conquered the neighboring provinces of Bihar, Assam and Orissa and established a large empire.

He was succeeded by his son Ballalasena, who reigned from (1158 – 1169 CE.). He was the most famous ruler of the Sena dynasty. Being an orthodox hindu, he reorganized the caste structure and introduced the practice of casteism (Kulinism) among the Brahmins, Baidyas and Kayasthas. Under this system, the Hindu castes were divided into sub-castes and the system of marriages among them was regulated according to set rules. Ballalasena was a learned scholar and a great patron of letters.

Lakshmanasena was the successor of Ballalasena. It is said that he reached the hills of Malaya (Travancore), in his conquest of world. He erected victory pillars at Puri, Banaras and Prayaga.

In 1199 CE one of the generals of Muhammad Ghori, Bhaktiar Khilji, invaded Bengal, Bihar and annexed them to the Muslim empire. Lakshmanasena fled to Bikrampur in the Dacca district where he died. The Senas continued to exist as a local dynasty in eastern Dacca as subordinates to the Muhammadans for another four generations.

5.Summary

The Rajputs played remarkable, memorable and sensational role in the history of North India since the demise of Harshavardhana till the foundation of the Muslim empire. For five centuries, they dominated Aryavartha and made a mark on the political and cultural history. The political structure of the age of Rajput’s witnessed the emergence of regional kingdoms based on regional royalties. Although the Rajputs were strong and brave, they failed to accomplish much. They were not able to combine together to fight against a common enemy. They fought separately against the invaders and no wonder they were defeated. Hereditary monarchy, benevolent administration was the main features. It may be stated that the Rajput polity was an amalgam of militarism, feudalism, divine right theory and the social contract theory. Feudalism became an essential element in the Rajput polity.

They championed the cause of Hindu religion and culture against the onslaughts of Muslims. Rajput courts were centers of culture where literature, music, dance, painting, and sculpture flourished with the support of the Rajput elite. Most of the Rajput kings were highly educated and extended liberal patronage. They founded the universities at Vikramashila, Odantapuri, Somapuri etc., Paramara king, Bhoja established a college at his capital city “Dhara”.

Prakrit, Sanskrit and Vernacular languages were highly developed. Several great works dealing with poetry, prose, drama, and grammar were produced. Historical and scientific literature of great merit was also produced during this period.

The Rajputs were great builders and their irrigation works, bathing places, reservoirs and forts give ample proof of the skill of their engineers and architects. Their important specimens of secular art are the fortresses located at Chittorgarh, Ranathambhor and Kumbalgarh in Rajasthan along with Mandu, Gwalior, Chandai and Asirgarh in Madhya Pradesh. The palaces in Rajasthan are also beautiful examples of art and architecture they fostered. The Rajputs also constructed number of temples. The beautiful temples at Khajuraho were built in the 10th & 11th centuries by the Chandella rulers stand in good testimony to the artistic excellence. of the Rajput artists and craftsmen, where each temple exhibits individual architectural character. The Dilwara temples at Mount Abu dedicated to Jaina Tirthankaras built of pure marble were produced during this period. They also built Siva temples at Nemavar and Udaipur. It is said that Rudramala temple is one of the largest and most decorated religious monuments in India.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandela
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput
• http://www.indianrajputs.com
• http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/rajputs.html
• http://www.chauhan.com/
• http://www.britannica.com/topic/Rajput
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QK6bHxK3Ho – Video
• http://selfstudyhistory.com