11 Indo-Greeks, sakas and kushanas

P. Bhaskar Reddy

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1. Introduction

 

The post-Mauryan period saw the emergence of small indigenous and foreign kingdoms. Hence this period has been designated as the ‘Age of small kingdoms’ . In eastern India, central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by number of Native rulers such as the Sungas, the Kanvas, and the Satavahanas. In north-western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia. The Greeks were the first to extend power over North-Western India. This period is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India.

 

2. Indo-Greeks

 

The Greeks were known as Yavanas in the Indian literature. They were the rulers of Bactria, lying south of the Oxus in the area covered by north of Afghanistan. The Greeks of Bactria were originally Satraps (subordinate rulers) of the Seleucid empire of West Asia. In about the middle of 3rd century BCE, Diodotus I revolted against the Seleucids and established an independent kingdom. The Bactrian’s extended their control into other areas as well. By the early 2nd century BCE, they had moved into the area south of the Hindu Kush. On account of growing pressure from the Scythian tribes, the later Greek rulers were unable to hold their power. In the middle of 2nd century they lost their hold over Bactria, but continued to rule in the north-western part of the sub-continent for a few decades. The Bactrian Greeks who ruled over parts of North-west India are known as Indo-Greeks or Indo-Bactrians.

 

Demetrius I (180-165BCE) son of Euthydemus I was the person who was responsible, after Alexander the Great, to carry Greek arms into the interior of India. His Indian expedition became the first of the series of the consequent Bactrian Greek invasions of India. Demetrius crossed the Hindu Kush Mountain with large army and conquered the regions of Punjab and Sindh. His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit written in Greek and Kharoshthi. He made Sakala (Sialkot in Punjab) his capital.

 

The names of many Indo-Greek rulers are known from their coins. However, the details of their reigns, their sequence and chronology and the extent of their political control remain rather nebulous.

 

Demetrius I, Demetrius II, Appolodotus, Pataleon and Agathocles were responsible for extending Bactrian rule to the south of the Hindu Kush into north-western India. But the Greeks failed to establish united rule in India. Two Greek dynasties ruled north-western India on parallel lines at one and the same time. They are Euthydemus (Demetrius) and Eukratides.

 

Menander was the most famous of the Indo-Greeks (165 to 145 BCE). He was known as Milinda in Indian tradition. He ruled for a long time from his capital Sakala and his coins represent him in all stages of his life, from youth to old age. His kingdom, at its peak, covered an area extending from Kabul to Mathura. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander asked Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhism. These questions and Nagasena’s answers were recorded in a book known as Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.

 

Menander was succeeded by impotent kings. Apollodotus, one of his successors, conquered Indus valley and Gujarat and at its widest, his territory extended from Barygaza to Kapisa and Gandhara. But Apollodotus was defeated by Eucratides who in turn was assassinated by his own son Heliocles. The Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the death of Menander. Rulers of this space included queen Agathokleia and her son Strato whose joint coin issues have been found.

 

Eucratides advanced towards India and made Taxila as capital after conquering some part of the north-western region. A protracted feud between the ruling houses of Euthydemus and Eukratides began after the reign of Demetrius I. Kings Amyntus, Antialcidas, Archebius and Hermaeus belong to the house of Eukratides.

 

Antialcidas belonged to the house of Eucratides, is found referred in an inscription at Besnagar near Bhilsa. The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription suggests that the rule of Antialcidas extended upto Taxila. Heliodorus is described as a native of the city. Heliodorus was deputed by the king to the court of Kasiputra Bhagabhadra as ambassador. It is stated in the inscription that the pillar was erected in honour of Vasudeva. It is the earliest reference to the existence of Vaishnavism in ancient India. Heliodorus was the first foreigner to embrace Vaishnavism. It also indicates one of the stages in the evolution of Bhakti movement in India.

 

The Parthian defeat of Hermaeus signaled the end of Greek rule in Bactria and south of the Hindu Kush.

 

3. Parthians

 

The Parthians or Pahlavas were an Iranian people, who for sometimes lived with the Scythians. Therefore, many characteristics were common to both. In many ancient Indian Sanskrit texts the two peoples are together mentioned as Saka-Pahlavas. In fact they ruled over this country on parallel lines for some time. In comparison with the Greeks and the Sakas they occupied only a small portion of north-western India in the first century CE. The first member of this line was Vonones, who attained power in Arachosia and Seistan. Gondophernes was the greatest Indo-Parthian ruler ruled from 19 to 45 CE On all his coins, Gondophernes appears as a bearded, middle aged man. It was during his reign, St. Thomas, the Apostle is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity. This appears for the first time in the Syrian text of the Acts of Judas Thomas, the Apostle. This contains the story of the conversion of Gondophernes into Christianity and the subsequent martyrdom of St. Thomas. After the death of Gondophernes, the Parthian empire was split into petty principalities. The successors of Gondophernes were ultimately ousted from north-western India by the Kushanas.

 

4. Scythians or Sakas

 

The Greeks were followed by the Sakas. They were a nomadic tribe originally lived in central Asia. In about 165 BCE they were turned out of their original home by the Yueh-Chi tribe. Then they migrated to the north-west of Central Asia and fought against the Greek kingdom of Bactria. Most of the Sakas settled down in the Valley of river Hilmand and established small states. With the passage of time, more Sakas came from Central Asia and consequently those who had settled in the north-west crossed the Hindu Kush and Sulaiman ranges and settled in northern India. The Sakas then came into conflict with the Parthians who had already settled there.

 

The earliest Saka ruler of India appears to have been Maues or Moga. He established Saka power in Gandhara. His rule extended on both sides of the Indus, from Pushkalavati on the west to Taxila on the east. Maues issued a large number of coins mostly in copper and few in silver. On the obverse of his coins appear many Greek deities, Siva and Buddha. Numismatic evidence suggest that Maues was succeeded by Azes I.

 

Azes I annexed the territory of the last of the Indo-Greek kings in northern India, Hippostratos. Azes I issued some coins jointly with another king named Azilises and later he jointly issued coins with Azes II. Thus they seem to have been co-rulers at a time.

 

Under the pressure from the Parthians and later from Kushanas, the Sakas got divided into five branches with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. The rulers belonging to all these branches were now known as Kshatrapas or Mahakshatrapas.

 

5. The Saka-Kshatrapas of Western India

 

An early Kshatrapa line of western India was represented by Mambarus, who is mentioned in the Periplus. There were two important line of Kshatrapa rulers – the Kshaharatas and Kardamakas.

 

The earliest known Kshatrapa of Maharashtra was Bhumaka, who belonged to Kshaharata family. Bhumaka and his son Nahapana were responsible for the extension of Saka Power. They occupied Western Deccan, Northern Parts of Maharastra, Konkan, Malwa, Kathiawar and Southern Rajasthan from 100 BCE.

 

Bhumaka’s successor and most illustrious king of the Kshaharata family was Nahapana. Nahapana’s coins have been found in the Ajmer area of Rajasthan and Nasik in Maharashtra. Apart from his coins, there are several inscriptions dated in Saka era 78 CE. His capital was Minnagara located between Ujjain and Broach. Nahapana’s son in law Ushavadatta was viceroy of the southern part of the kingdom.

 

The Saka-Kshatrapas were involved in prolonged conflict with the Satavahana dynasty. It appears from the Nasik inscription and the Jogalthembi hoard of coins, that the power of Nahapana was crushed by the Satavahana ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarni who annexed the Southern provinces of the Kshaharata dominions. After the death of Nahapana, the Kshaharatas were succeeded by the Kardamakas.

 

Another line of Saka-Kshatrapas known as Kardamakas came into a force in western India. The founder of this dynasty was Chastana. The Andau inscription of 130 CE shows that Chastana had been ruling conjointly with his grandson Rudradaman. Both of these rulers were successful in winning back some of the territories conquered by Gautamiputra Satakarni from Nahapana.

 

The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (130 – 150 CE). According to the Junagadh Rock inscription, men of all castes chose him as protector and that he won for himself the title of Mahaksatrapa. He twice defeated a Satavahana king named Satakarni, the lord of the Deccan, but spared his life because of family relations. He ruled not only over Sindhu, Kutch and Gujarat, but had also recovered from the Satavahanas Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar. He also humbled the warlike Yaudheyas who inhabited southern Punjab and the adjoining regions. He had his capital at Ujjain.

 

Rudradaman was not only a great conqueror but also a great patron of learning and lover of Sanskrit. He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarsana Lake in Kathiawar.

 

Although the Sakas established their rule in the different parts of the country only those who ruled in western India held power for considerable length of time. Rudradaman was succeeded by Damaglisada I, Rudrasimha I, Jivadaman, Rudrasena I, Sanghadaman and Damasena; the last known ruler was Rudrasimha III. He ruled upto 388 CE. He has been mentioned in Bana’s Harshacharita as having been killed by the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

 

6. Kushanas

 

The Parthians were followed by Kushanas. The Kushanas were a branch of Yueh-chi tribe, whose original home was central Asia. A nomadic people from the steppes of north central Asia living in the neighbourhood of China, the Kushanas first occupied Bactria where they displaced the Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara by crossing the Hindu Kush replacing the Greeks and Parthians.

 

6.1. Kadphises I (15 – 64 CE)

 

The founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I. He became the master of the Gandhara and Kabul regions. He issued coins South of Hindu Kush. He also consolidated his power in Bactria. His kingdom extended from the frontiers of Persia to the Indus.

 

6.2. Kadphises II (64 – 78 CE)

 

Kadphises II also known as Wima Khadpises conquered the whole of North Western India as far as Mathura. He issued gold coins with high sounding title like “the lord of the whole world” Kadiphises II became a convert to Saivism and proclaimed himself as Maheswara on his coins. The obverse of his coins represent him on a couch or standing sacrificing at an Alter or even riding a chariot drawn by two horses. The abundance of gold and copper coins issued by Kadphises II indicated the prosperity of the Kushana empire. He maintained close links with China and Rome. Brisk trade in silk, spices, gems and other articles was carried on between India and China and the Roman empire. During his time the influence of the Sakas and Parthians came to an end.

 

6.3. Kanishka (78 – 120 CE)

 

Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. He was the founder of the Saka Era which starts from 78 CE. At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sindh and Punjab.

  • From the Si-yu-ki and Rajatarangini, it is clear that Kanishka conquered Kashmir. He erected a large number of Monuments there and also founded a town known as Kanishkapura.
  • The discovery of a large number of Kanishka’s records at Mathura and the Sanchi museum inscription seem to suggest that Rajputana, Malwa and Saurashtra also formed part of Kanishka’s dominions.
  • The Buddhist tradition states that Kanishka after capturing Pataliputra, Asvaghosha, the great Buddhist philosopher, fell into his hands and he brought that sage along with him. Asvaghosha later on became one of the greatest literary luminaries of the court of the Kanishka. From this it is inferred that Kanishka might have conquered at least a portion of Magadha. This view is supported by the fact that a large number of coins of Kanishka have been found from Ghazipur to Gorakhpur.
  • Kanishka is said to have waged war against the Sakas of Western India. The result of this war was that the Sakas acknowledged the supremacy of Kanishka and also surrendered a portion of Malwa to him.
  • He also fought against the Chinese and acquired the territories of Khotan, Yarkand and Kashgar. Kanishka secured the Chinese princes as hostages whom he treated with kindness. In the latter part of his reign, Kanishka suffered reverses in the north and north east because of the victories of Pan-cho, a famous general of the Chinese emperor Ho-ti. His empire outside India, thus, suffered diminution; although his extensive empire in India remained intact during his lifetime.
  • The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the East, and from Kashmir in the North to Malwa in the South. His capital was Purushapura (modern Peshawar). Mathura was another important city in his empire.

 

6.3.1. Kanishka and Buddhism:

 

Kanishka’s name and fame is more due to his association with the Buddhist faith. Like Ashoka, Kanishka did some solid service for the spread of Buddhism. Buddhist Chaityas, Stupas and Viharas were built in different places. He patronized Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. Missionaries were sent to the foreign countries like China, Japan, Tibet and Central Asia for the propagation of Buddhistm. He also convened the fourth Buddhist council at Kundanavana in Kashmir, to discuss the matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. It was held under the presidentship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha as Vice President. The council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and Mahayana doctrine was given final shape. The whole of the Buddhist literature was thoroughly reexamined. The decisions of the council were engraved on sheets of copper and were placed in stone chests and deposited in a stupa especially erected for the purpose. Kanishka also got a stupa, a matha and a town constructed at Peshwar in which relics of Buddha were kept.

 

A great change came in the very nature of Buddhism during the time of Kanishka. The original Hinayana form of Buddhism was replaced by a new form of religion viz., Mahayanism. Under Hinayanism, Buddha was worshipped in the form of symbols, but under Mahayanism Buddha was worshipped in the form of human images.

 

6.3.2. Literature

 

Voluminous Sanskrit literature of high standard was produced during the time of Kanishka. Asvaghosha was the greatest literary figure of his times. In richness and variety his work viz., Buddhacharita is matchless. Nagarjuna was the other great scholar, philosopher and also a scientist. He enunciated the theory of relativity in his great work Madhyamika Sutra. He has been styled as Indian Einstein. Vasumitra was the other literary giant patronized by Kanishka. He wrote Mahavibhasha Sastra. Charaka, the author of ‘Charaka Samhita’, flourished in the court of Kanishka. He was an authority on medicinal Science. Parsva and Mathava were the other prominent scholars who adorned the court of Kanishka.

 

6.3.3. Kanishka as a Builder

 

Kanishka was undoubtedly the greatest of the Kushana dynasty. He was the only Indo-Asiatic king who exercised his power over parts of India and in central Asia.

 

The Monuments constructed under the patronage of Kanishka are found at Taxila, Peshawar, Mathura and Kanishkapura. Mathura became a great centre of Art. An important art object of this period is a statue of Kanishka which is headless – an excellent specimen of portrait sculpture of the Kushana period.

 

7. Successors of Kanishka

 

Kanishka’s immediate successor was Vasishka. He was the founder of Jushkapura, identified with the modern Zukar near Srinagar and the township of Jayasvanipura. Vasishka was succeeded by Huvishka. Like Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism. The last important ruler was Vasudeva. He took the title Shaono Shao Vasudeva Koshano. His name suggests that by his time the Kushanas were totally Indianised. He was a worshipper of Siva, as is evident from the figure of Siva and bull on his coins. The history of the Kushanas after Vasudeva is shrouded in obscurity in the absence of any literary and archaeological evidence. The dismemberment of mighty Kushana empire was hastened by the Persian invasions. One of the causes for the downfall of the Kushanas was the rise of independent republics like the Yaudheyas, Kunindas and Malwas and finally the Guptas.

 

8.0. Impact of Central Asian Conquests

  • The coming of the foreigners established intimate contacts between central Asia and India. The turn of the millennium had been a period of central Asian intervention in the history of Northern India that took the form of conquest, migrations and commerce.
  • The second Greek conquest of India of Demetrius, Eucratides and Menander penetrated deep into the Indian Territory with the obvious purpose of setting up an empire.
  • India and China were brought closer through the interlinking Oases and through Kushana territory bordering both.
  • The Sakas and the Kushanas strengthened the idea of the Divine origin of kingship. The Indo Greek kings and the Kushanas took exalted titles ‘Rajadhiraja’ (king of kings), ‘Daivaputra’ (son of heaven), Soter (Savior) and Kaisara (caesor). The Kushanas introduced the Satrap system of Government where as the Greeks followed the practice of military Governship.
  • The Sakas and Kushanas added new ingredients to Indian culture and enriched it immensely. They settled in India for good and completely identified themselves with its culture. Since most of them came as conquerors, they were absorbed in to Indian society as a warrior class i.e., Kshatriyas.
  • Given the territorial span of the contact, and the intermingling of people, royal patronage had to extend to variety of religions-Buddhism, Jainism, Bhagavata and Saiva sects, Zoroastrianism and Hellenistic cults. The foreign princes also patronized and cultivated the Sanskrit literature.
  • The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of India because of the large number of coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings. It is significant that the Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue Gold coins on a wider scale.
  • The foreign princes became enthusiastic patrons of Indian Art and Architecture. The Greek rule is memorable on account of the introduction of Hellenistic art features in the north-western India. Indian craftsmen came into contact with the Greeks and the Romans, especially in the north-western frontier of India in Gandhara. The Kushanas brought together masons and other artisans trained in different schools and countries. This gave rise to several schools of Art: Central Asian Art, Gandhara Art and Mathura Art.
  • Gandhara School of Art originated during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of this school of Art were the Sakas and the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. The Gandhara School made sculptures of Buddha in various sizes, shapes and postures. The hair of the Buddha was fashioned in the Graeco-Roman style. A large number of monasteries were built from First to Fourth century CE.
  • The influence of the Gandhara art also spread to Mathura although it was primarily a centre of indigenous art. The School of Art that developed in Mathura in Uttar Pradesh is called Mathura Art. Mathura School of Art produced beautiful images of Buddha exhibiting the spiritual feeling in his face which was largely absent in Gandhara School of art. It also produced several stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira. The Madhura School also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi. At present the Mathura Museum preserves the largest collection of sculptures of Kushana times.
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Web links

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Indo-Greeks
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_religions
  • https://sites.google.com/site/greekinfluenceonindia/home/indo–greek-rulers-of-india
  • http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Indo-Greek_Kingdom
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empire
  • http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaSakas.htm
  • http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html
  • http://historyofindia-madhunimkar.blogspot.in/2009/10/indo-greek-kingdom-or-greco-indian.html
  • http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty
  • http://www.srpathak.com/2013/03/emergence-of-mahayana.html
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondophares
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Scythians
  • http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaSakas.htm