7 Religious Movements – Jainism and Buddhism

P. Bhaskar Reddy

epgp books

 

 

1. Introduction

 

The sixth century BCE was a period of great religious upheaval in India. It was an age of intellectual ferment. It saw the emergence of numerous religious sects in the Gangetic basin. Of the religious sects and religions that emerged during this period were Buddhism and Jainism. Both these religions were only reformed form of Hinduism. They had a common background of Aryan culture and were motivated by the philosophy of the Upanishads. Their ideas about Karma, Atman (soul), Punarjanma (rebirth), Moksha, Ahimsa etc., had been inspired by the Upanishads.

 

2. Causes for the Rise of New Religious Movements

 

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th Century BCE. Several social, economic, religious factors were also responsible for the emergence of heterodox religions like Buddhism and Jainism,

  • In the Post-Vedic period the society was divided into four varnas viz, Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The Brahmanas who occupied the top most place in the society became the custodians of religion and learning. The Kshatriyas reacted very sharply against the ritualistic domination and the enviable social status enjoyed by the Brahmanas. Gautama, the Buddha, the founder of Buddhism and Vardhamana Mahavira, the promoter of Jainism were Kshatriyas. Both of them questioned the authority of the Brahmanas.
  • In the Bramanical society, the Vaisyas were ranked third. During this period, due to the emergence of agrarian economy, expansion of trade and commerce, and finally the formation of guilds made the Vaisya community economically powerful. But, their economic status was not in tune with their social status. Under these circumstances the Vaisyas naturally looked for some religion which should improve their social status.
  • Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity and it was reduced to a bundle of cumbrous rituals. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the later Vedic period were not acceptable to the people. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The rites and rituals were painfully elaborate and awfully expensive. The common man developed a great dislike for these rituals.
  • The caste system had become rigid and brutal. There were strict restrictions on food, drink and marriage. Women neither enjoyed social mobility nor religious freedom. Both Buddhism and Jainism offered them an honoured place.
  • All the religious treatises of the Vedic religion were composed in Sanskrit, the language of the privileged. The teachings of the Buddha and Mahavira, was in Prakrit– the language of the common people.

 

3.  Jainism

 

Jainism has a unique place in the religious history of India. Jain traditions claim that theirs is the oldest of all religions in India. The names of two Jain Thirthankaras, Rishabha and Arishtanemi, are found in Rigveda. The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an avatara of Narayana. Thirthankara is the title of Jain patriarchs who showed men the passage of life. There were twenty four Thirthankaras, all Kshatriyas and belonging to the royal family, coming one after the other. The first was Rishabha Natha and the last was Vardhamana Mahavira. The first twenty two Thirthankaras were legendary in character. The twenty – third Thirthankara named Parsvanatha lived 250 years before Mahavira. He was the son of Asvasena, the king of Kasi and so a historical figure. He became an ascetic at the age of thirty. His followers were called Nigranthas.

 

3.1 Vardhamana Mahavira’s Life and Preachings

 

Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Thirthankara and not the founder of Jainism. But it were his efforts and teachings which transformed Jainism into a popular religion in the sixth century BCE. Mahavira was born as the second son in 540 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaisali, now in Muzzaffarpur district of Bihar. His father Siddartha was the head of a Kshatriya clan called Jnatrikas. His mother was Trishala.

 

Vardhamana was educated in all branches of knowledge. At the age of 30 he renounced his family, became an ascetic and proceeded in search of truth. He spent the first six years of his wandering with Gosala Maskariputra, the founder of the Ajivika sect. He attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge) in the thirteenth year of his asceticism under a sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his religion Jainism.

 

3.1.1 Teachings of Mahavira :

 

The following principles of Jainism were preached by him.

  • Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. He advocated an austere and simple life with the ultimate aim to attain Kaivalya (nirvana).
  • He did not believe in the existence of God. He said that the universe is the product of nature – the outcome of cause and effect. Man’s salvation does not depend upon the mercy of God but on his own acts.
  • He believed in karma and punarjanma. Man is punished or rewarded in successive births according to his Karma.
  • He believed in dualistic philosophy (syadvada) and held that matter (Jiva) and soul (atman) are the only two existing elements; the former is perishable while the later is eternal and evolutionary. The ultimate aim of Jiva should be to get rid of the cycle of birth and rebirth and attain (nirvana).
  • The five cardinal principles (Panch vratas) of Jainism are-

 

Ahimsa                    (Non-violence)

Satya                        (Truth)

Asteya                     (Non-stealing)

Aparigraha             (Non-possession)

Brahmacharya     (Chastity)

 

Only the last principle was added by Mahavira, the other four being the teachings of his predecessors. Mahavira put great emphasis on the observance of Ahimsa.

 

According to Mahavira, Nirvana or Salvation is getting rid of bondage of worldly desires. To become a Sanyasi Nirvana was inevitable. It must be followed by observance of ‘Tri-Ratnas’ – (the three principles) of Jainism. The Tri-Ratnas of Jainism consist of

Samyak Gyan        (Right knowledge)

Samyak Darshan  (Right faith)

Samyak Acharan   (Right conduct)

 

 

3.2 Jaina Sects

 

Mahavira organized the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in to Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. The Jain Sangha remained united for approximately two centuries after Mahavir’s death. But it could not maintain its unity for a longer period. It split during Mauryan age and two sects came into existence. Bhadrabahu, the greatest ever exponent of Jain philosophy, composed Kalpasutra which is the most authentic treatise on the rise and development of Jainism from its origin to his time. He left Magadha for Mysore. About 300 BCE Sthulabhadra called the first Jain council in which the Jain canons were compiled. When Bhadrababhu returned to Magadha, he refused to acknowledge the leadership of Sthulabhadra. The Jain Sangha was then divided into two parts – Digambara and Svetambara. The followers of Bhadrabahu who remained naked and did not wear clothes came to be known as Digambaras, while the followers of Sthulabhadra had adopted white dress came to be known as Svetambaras.

 

3.3 Growth of Jainism:

 

Jainism never witnessed the rapid and extensive growth as was the case of Buddhism. On the other hand, its growth was slow and steady. It was confined to India only. Jainism had become an important religion in eastern UP during the life time of Mahavira itself. Later on, it spread to Kosala, Videha, Magadha, Anga, Mathura, Ujjain and part of Rajasthan.

 

The Mauryan ruler, Chandragupta Maurya, became a follower of Jainism in the last years of his life. He left Pataliputra and accompanied by Bhadrabahu reached Sravanabelagola in Karnataka where he performed a fast unto death and like a true Jain upasaka attained Kaivalya. Ashoka’ s grandson Samprati had accepted Jainism. In the second century BCE king Kharavela of Orissa professed Jainism and became its illustrious patron. The second Jain council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 CE under the chairmanship of Devardhi Kshamasramana. The final compilation of Jaina literature called twelve Angas was completed in this council. The royal dynasties of South India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. King Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty became a Jain monk.

 

3.4 Decline of Jainism:

 

The extreme character of Mahavira’s teachings, it’s over emphasis on Ahimsa could not be followed by masses in large numbers. The Jain Sangh and monks did not display same spirit of commitment and dedication to spread the religion as was shown by Buddhist missionaries. With the passage of time many evils entered the Jain faith. The royal patronage was not forthcoming. The foreign invaders, first the Sakas and the Huns and later the Muslims gave a serious setback. Lastly, the revival of Hinduism sounded the death knell of Jainism.

 

3.5 Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture

 

Jainism made valuable contribution to Indian Culture in the sphere of religion, society, literature, philosophy, education, art and architecture. Non-violence was the guiding principle of Indian life. In society, Jainism spread the message of social equality. It also stood for abolition of gender based discrimination. Jainism paved the way for the development of literature. In the early stages the Jains adopted the Prakrit language of the common people to preach their doctrines. The adaption of Prakrit by the Jains as their medium of expression and language for the compilation of their canonical literature gave a tremendous stimulation for the growth of Prakrit language particularly by Saurasena. The Jains also contributed to the growth of Kannada literature in which they wrote extensively. The Jains also contributed substantially for the development of the art of painting. The Jain paintings are found at Ellora and Sittannavasal. Jainism enriched Indian architecture. Hathigumpha of Orissa, Mt-Abu in Rajasthan, Girnar in Saurashtra have good specimens of cave architecture. The rock cut caves at Badami and Aihole have the figures of Jain Thirthankaras which belong to early Chalukya period. Jain temples at Jodhpur, Chittore, Khajuraho and Dilwara in particular are valuable contributions to architectural heritage of India. The gigantic statue of Bahubali (Gomateswara) at Sravanabelagola in Karnataka is a marvel.

 

4. Buddhism

 

Buddhism was the movement that gave the greatest shock to Brahmanism. It was founded by Gautama Buddha who was a notable contemporary of Mahavira. Buddhism stood on three pillars- the ‘Buddha’ (its founder) the ‘Dharma’ (his teachings) and the ‘Sangha’ (the order of the Buddhist monks and nuns)

 

4.1 Gautama Buddha’s life

 

Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was also known as Sakyamuni or Thathagatha. He was born in 563 BCE on the Vaisakha purnima day in the royal grove at Lumbini (now in Nepal) near Kapilavastu, capital of the Sakyan republic, where his father Suddhodhana was the ruler. His mother was Maya. The site of his nativity is marked by the celebrated Rummindei Pillar of Ashoka. As Maya died at child birth, Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and step mother, Prajapati Gautami. An introvert by nature Siddhartha remained absorbed in philosophical and spiritual musings from childhood. At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula.

 

The sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead man and an ascetic intensified Siddhartha’s quest for the world and made him realize the hollowness of worldly pleasures. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of truth. This departure is known as the ‘Great Renunciation’ (mahabhinishkramana). For full six years Gautama lived as a homeless ascetic, seeking instruction under two Brahmin religious teachers – Alara Kalama and Uddaka or Ramaputta. Ultimately, one fine morning of Vaisakha purnima, at the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment (Nirvana) at Buddha Gaya in Bihar. Since then he was known as the Buddha or the ‘enlightened one’. Then he proceeded to the deer park near Sarnath, in the vicinity of Benaras, where he gave his first sermon (dharma Chakrapravartana) before the five ascetics who had been earlier his colleagues. After preaching for the next 45 years, he passed away in 483 BCE under a Sal tree at Kusinagara (now Kasi in Gorakhpur district of UP).

 

The most renowned converts to his teachings were Sariputta and Moggallanna, ascetics of Rajagriha. Ananda (his cousin and chief disciple), Kasyapa (his most learned disciple), Upali (the barber) and the rich youth Vasa were his famous followers. Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples. Buddha in his life time spread his message far and wide in North India and visited places like Benaras, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama.

 

4.2 Teachings of Buddha :

 

The Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took note of the realities of the day. He did not involve himself in fruitless controversies. He rejected the infallibility of the Vedas; condemned the bloody animal sacrifices, protested against complicated, elaborate and meaningless ritual; challenged the caste system and priestly supremacy; and maintained an agnostic attitude towards god. Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of god. He laid great emphasis on the law of Karma. He argued that condition of man in this life depend upon his own deeds. He taught that soul does not exist. However, he emphasized Ahimsa. By his love for human beings and all living creatures, he endeared himself to all. His religion was identical with morality, and it emphasized purity of thought, word and deed.

 

4.2.1 Four Noble Truths

 

The essence of Buddhism lies in the four noble truths. They are:

  1. The world is full of sorrows.
  2. The cause of sorrow is desire
  3. If desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed,
  4. The only way to achieve the above is by following the eight fold path.

 

4.2.2.  Eight-fold path (Ashtangamarga)

 

Gautama Buddha recommended an eight fold path for the elimination of human misery. It comprised of

  1. Right view,
  2. Right resolve,
  3. Right speech,
  4. Right conduct,
  5. Right livelihood,
  6. Right effort,
  7. Right mindfulness,
  8. Right concentration.

 

If a person follows this eight fold path he would not depend on the machinations of the priests, and will be able to reach his goal of life. He taught that a person should avoid the excess of both luxury and austerity. According to Buddha’s teachings anyone who follows this path, considered as the ‘middle path’ (madhyama pritipada) would attain salvation irrespective of his social background.

 

The Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his followers on the same lines as was done by the Jaina teachers. The main items in this social conduct are : i) do not covet the property of others, ii) do not commit violence, iii) do not use intoxicants, iv) do not speak lie and v) do not indulge in corrupt practices. These teachings are common to the social conduct ordained by almost all religions. Therefore, Buddhism was more a social than a religious resolution.

 

4.3. Buddhist Sangha

 

The Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bikkus) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The former were organized into the Sangha. The membership of the Sangha was open to all persons, male or female, above fifteen years of age. There were no caste restrictions. Buddhist Sangha was a liberal organization. All the members of the Sangha had equal rights and Gautama Buddha did not appoint anybody as his successor. The process of admission to Sangha was called ‘Upasampada’.

 

4.4 Buddhist Councils

 

Shortly after the Buddha’ s death the first Buddhist Council was held in 483 BCE at Rajagriha. Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha. Ajatasatru was the king of Magadha at that time. The conference attended by 500 monks was presided over by Mahakasyapa. The conference compiled Vinaya pitak and Sutta pitak.

 

A century later a dispute arose regarding the code of discipline as the monks of Vaishali wanted a relaxation of rules. A Second Council was convened in or about 383 BCE at Vaisali (Bihar). Kalasoka was the ruler at that time. It was presided over by Sabakami. Mahakachchayan and his followers refused to accept any change in Vinaya pitak. They were called Theravadin. Those who accepted the changes were led by Mahakasyapa and called Mahasamghika.

 

The Third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka in 250 BCE under the chairmanship of a learned monk Moggaliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures. The conference was dominated by Theravadins. The main achievements were to compile a third pitak i.e. Abhidamma pitak and to decide to propagate Buddhism outside India. The canonical literature was precisely, definitely and authoritatively settled so as to eliminate all disruptive tendencies, making any division within the Sangha punishable.

 

The Fourth Council was held in the first or second century CE during the reign of Kanishka at Kundalavana in Kashmir. It was presided over by Vasumitra. This conference led to the division of Buddhism into two broad sects namely the Mahayana and the Hinayana. The followers of Mahayana sect believed in Bodhisatvas. They worshipped the idols of Buddha and Bodhisatvas and used Sanskrit as medium of writing. It was a popular sect. The followers of Hinayana sect wanted to maintain the original purity of Buddha’s teachings. This sect was popular in Magadha, Srilanka and Burma.

 

4.5 Spread of Buddhism:

 

Buddhism made phenomenal progress as a popular religion not only in India but even outside it. There are a number of factors which helped in this progress and growth. The over-whelming support extended by the unprivileged, who formed the bulk of the population in those days made Buddhism very popular within a record time. Personality and character of Gautama Buddha was a key factor in making Buddhism popular. His rationalism appealed to the mind of intellectuals. His morals and simple living touched the heart and imagination of common folk. Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi, and several republican states of North India embraced Buddhism. About two hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan emperor Ashoka embraced Buddhism. After the third Buddhist Council Ashoka launched a vigorous campaign to preach and propagate the message of the Buddha and sent missionaries to various parts of India and the neighbouring countries. Through his Buddhist missionary, his effort spread into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion. After the death of Ashoka, the Kushan king, Kanishka and Harshavardhana patronized Buddhism. It was due to these efforts that Buddhism made had considerable influence in South East Asia, the Far East and Central Asia. It may be stated here that though Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it continued to hold ground in the countries of South East Asia and Far East. A number of illustrious saints like Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Sanga, Vasubandhu, Buddhaghosa etc., made an immense contribution to Buddhist philosophy and religion.

 

4.6 Causes of Decline of Buddhism

 

After the death of Harshavardhana, Buddhism started losing its popularity and finally disappeared even from the land of its birth. Several factors were responsible for it.

  • Buddhism, in the beginning, was inspired by the spirit of reform. Gradually it succumbed to the rituals and ceremonies which initially were it attacked and denounced. After the birth of Mahayanism, the practice of idol worship and making of offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards.
  • Pali language was used for writing the canonical literature and for preaching the gospel of the religion. Hence it maintained close touch with the masses. Gradually the Buddhist monk gave up Pali and Prakrit and took to Sanskrit. This created distance between Buddhism and the common people.
  • The kings and wealthy people offered generous gifts and grants in the form of cash and kind for the maintenance of viharas, stupas and Chaityas. This developed laziness and transparent pleasures amongst the Buddhist monks and nuns. Thus the Buddhist monasteries lost its purity and became centres for unethical practices.
  • The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of the popularity of Buddhism. Due to moral degeneration in the Buddhist Sangha and the revival of Brahmanism, many kings supported the cause of Brahamanism. The lack of royal patronage had a telling effect on the moral and material strength of Buddhism.
  • Brahmanas, to meet the Buddhist challenge, radically reformed their religion and won the hearts of the common people. This paved the way for the emergence of Bhagavatism which represented a synthesis of orthodox and heterodox religions.
  • Moreover, the attack of the Huns (in 5th and 6th centuries) and the Turkish invaders (in 12th century) destroyed the monasteries. Thus, Buddhism, by twelfth century A.D., practically disappeared from the land of its birth.

 

4.7 Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

 

Buddhism had made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian Culture. The progress of Buddhism exercised considerable influence in shaping various aspects of Indian life viz., social, religious, cultural and political.

  • The concept of Ahimsa was its chief contribution. It became one of the cherished values of India. The doctrine of Ahimsa, so strongly stressed and devoutly preached and sincerely practiced by the Buddhists was incorporated bodily in their teachings by the Brahmins of later days.
  • With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life, Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country. The brahmanical insistence on the fairness of the cow and non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teachings.
  • The practice of worshipping personal gods, making their images and erecting temples in their honour was adopted by the Hindus.
  • The principle of non-violence attracted large number of traders and artisans as trade and commerce flourish in peaceful conditions. Further money lending and commercial transactions were never considered as taboo by Buddhism. This helped in the development of trade and commerce and emergence of cities and towns.
  • Buddhism made substantial contribution to learning and education. Buddhism created and developed a new awakening in the field of intellect and culture. The use of Pali and Prakrit for preaching the doctrines and for the compilation of Buddhist literature enormously enriched those languages. Some of the Buddhist monasteries like Nalanda and Vikramasila in Bihar and Vallabhi in Gujarat were developed as great centers of learning and attracted students from different parts of the world.
  • Buddhism made an important impact on society by keeping its doors open to all.
  • Buddhism contributed a lot in the promotion of architecture, art and painting. The first human statues worshipped in India were probably those of the Buddha. The faithfull devotees portrayed the various events in the life of Buddha in stone. The stupas at Sanchi, Barhut, Gaya and Amaravati, the stone pillars of Ashoka and the cave temples of Kanheri, Karle and Nasik were considered the best specimens of Buddhist art. The stupa at Sanchi is world renowned for its gateways and railings which are profusely covered with sculpture. For the residence of the monks, rooms were hewn out of the rocks and thus began the cave architecture in Barabar hills in Gaya and western India around Nasik. Buddhism took credit for the Chaityas and Viharas in different parts of India. The world famous Ajanta paintings were mainly the work of the Buddhist painters. Most of the paintings illustrate the incidents that occurred in the previous lives of Buddha and also graphically described in the Buddhist Jatakas. The Greek and Indian sculptors worked together to create a new kind of art on the north-west frontier of India, which is known as the Gandhara Art. The images made in this region betray Indian as well as foreign influence. Buddhism broke the isolation of India and established an intimate contact between Indian and foreign countries. Indian culture and civilization was carried by the Buddhist missionaries into China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Burma, Java, Sumatra and other countries from the time of Ashoka.
  1. Summary

 

In conclusion it may be stated that the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism exerted salutary influence on religion, society, economy, etc. But the contribution made by these heterodox religions on learning and education, art, architecture and painting was ever lasting. In fact these religions enriched the Indian Culture.

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Web links

  • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_religions
  • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism
  • http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/history/the-sixth-century-bc-was-a-period-of-religious-and economicunrest-in-india-history/4436/
  • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_%28Hinduism%29
  • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankara
  • http://www.dhammaweb.net/books/DVEMATIK.PDF