5 Indus Civilization

P. Bhaskar Reddy

I. Introduction:

An epoch making discovery that occurred in the year 1921 enriched the content of Indian history, culture and archaeology. Rao Bahadur Dayaram Shahani discovered the famous Harappa in 1921. In 1922 R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro. The final discovery of Indus or Harappan civilization in 1921-1922 placed India on the world map along with Mesopotamia and Egypt, as an area where the earliest civilizing processes were initiated and developed. The last eight decades, since 1921-22 till the recent excavations at Dholavira in Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana, witnessed sustained archaeological explorations and large scale excavations at various sites in India and Pakistan.

2. Extent:

The entire area of the Harappan civilization is triangular in form and accounts for about 1,299,600 sq. km., and as such was the largest amongst the ancient civilizations. In precise terms, the civilization extended from Suktagendor, on the Makran coast in Baluchistan in the west to Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh in the east, and from Manda in Jammu in the North to Bhagatrar in Narmada Estuary in the South.

3. Chronology:

The first estimate of the duration of the occupation at Mohenjodaro was made by Sir John Marshall in 1931. He had suggested that the occupation at Mohenjodaro fell approximately between 3250 and 2750 BCE. Mackay assigned the lowest assignable level of Mohenjodaro to about 2800 BCE and uppermost to 2500 BCE. Stuart Piggott and S.M. Wheeler suggested an overall span of 2500 – 1500 BCE. The advent of radio carbon dating has provided a welcome new source of information of what must otherwise have remained a very vague position and will necessitate a revision of the earlier views. Based on this method Walter Fair Service suggested the need to bring down the dating of the Harappan civilization between 2000 and 1500 BCE. In 1964 D.P. Agarwal concluded that the total span of the culture should be between 2300 and 1750 BCE.

4. Nomenclature:

Different names and titles were proposed by the archaeologists to ancient India’s first phase of urbanization. It was first termed as Indo or Sumerian civilization owing to its obvious affinities with the Sumerian civilization of the third millennium BCE. It has been proposed by some that it is apt to call it as Indus civilization for it flourished in the Indus basin or valley.

Now it is an established fact that the civilization is not limited to Indus valley region. Some archeologist preferred the term Harappan civilization or culture.

The Indus civilization belonged to the proto-historic period since it represented a phase in which people had developed a script and written records were available. But the script has not yet been deciphered despite repeated attempts. It is agreed that the Indus civilization belonged to Bronze Age. The Harappans used bronze on a large scale and were urban in character.

5. Origin:

The problem of the origin of the Harappan civilization still remains very complex and various views have been expressed. Most of the earlier western scholars held the view that this civilization was not an indigenous one. Some of them opined that it was a colony of the Sumerian people. The perception of origins of Indus valley civilization was altered dramatically with the discovery of the extraordinary complex of culture sites on the Bolan River around Mehrgarh which was discovered and excavated under the direction of French archaeologist J.F. Jarrige in 1975. From this it can be said with certainty that the roots of this civilization lie deep in Indian soil. A.Ghosh was an author of indigenous theory. He argues that the Harappan culture owes its basic existence to the indigenous culture, though it could have borrowed some features from both Sumeria and Baluchisthan.

6. Makers of the civilization:

The only material available with regard to the authorship of the Harappan culture is the human skeletons and head skulls found among the ruins. They show that the population of Mohenjodaro was heterogeneous and comprised at least four different racial types i.e., Proto– Australoid, Mediterranean, Alpinoid and Mongoloid. But D.K. Sen came to the broad conclusion that the population at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro and Lothal were homogenous with regard to shape of head, nose and stature. It was not recognizable as belonging to several races with distinctive characteristics. So it belonged to single biological group. The majority prefers to view that the authors of the Harappan culture are speakers of ‘Dravidian languages’.

7.  Important Harappan Cities and Towns

7. 1. Mohenjodaro :

The site of Mohenjodaro is situated in Larkana district of Sind in Pakistan on the bank of river Indus. The literal meaning of the word Mohenjodaro, in Sindhi language is mound of the dead. The place was excavated for the first time in 1922 under the supervision of R.D. Banerjee. Further excavations were conducted by Sir John Marshall, E.J.H. Mackay, S.M. Wheeler, and G.F. Dales. Great Bath of Mohenjodaro is the most important public place measuring 39 feet (length) x 23 feet (breadth) x 8 feet (depth). It is located at the centre of the Citadel and was remarkable for beautiful brick work. Its floor, made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar, had a flight of steps, both on the north and south sides, leading to the bottom of the tank. The Great Granary found here has been the largest building measuring 150 feet (length) x 50 feet (breadth). It is located within the citadel and next to the Great Bath. Another amazing structure is multi pillared hall. The remains of twenty pillars have been found in excavation. Scholars have called it “Assembly Hall”. From the other material remains it is evident that Mohenjodaro was a great city of the Indus civilization. The discovery of a number of stone, bronze and terracotta figures speak about the level of the aesthetic sense of the citizens. The depictions on the seals throw light on animal sacrifice, cult of mother goddess, worship of animal and tree and a belief in the proto form of Siva-Pasupati.

7.2 Harappa:

The relics of the Harappan culture were first discovered and excavated in 1921 by D.R. Sahani. It is situated on the bank of river Ravi at a distance of twenty five kilometers southwest of Montgomery in Pakistan. The vast mounds at Harappa were first reported by Masson in 1826 and visited by Cunningham in 1853 and 1873. The Harappa town was divided into two sectors eastern and the western. The western sector was a fortified structure erected on manmade platform. There were some houses outside the fortified area. They were the residences of the toiling people. The granaries here are located outside the citadel, but immediately next to it in the west. They are a series of brick platforms forming the basis of two rows of six granaries, each measuring 50 x 20 feet. On the southern side of the granaries lay working floors consisting of the rows of circular brick platforms meant for threshing because wheat and barley have been found in the crevices of the floors. The material remains discovered at Harappa are of the typical Indus characters which include pottery, chert blades, copper and bronze implements, terracotta figures and the seals and sealings. It has also yielded two interesting stone sculptures not available at any other Indus site, a small nude male torso of red sandstone with a pendulous belly and a male figure made of grey stone and is in a dancing pose. Marshall identified it with the much later icon of Siva as Nataraja, lord of dance.

7.3. Chanhudaro :

Chanhudaro is situated 130 km south of Mohanjodaro near Sarkand in Sind. It was discovered by N.G. Majumdar in 1931 and excavated on a larger scale by E.J.H. Mackay in 1935-36. The remains of both the pre-Harappan as well as Harappan culture are found here. It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. A small pot was discovered here which probably was an ink pot. The available evidence shows that it was the major centre of production for the beautiful seals gathered from a dozen or more Harappan sites. The hoards of copper and bronze tools, castings, evidence of the crafts like bead making, bone items, bangles, other items of conch shell and seal making suggest that Chanhudaro was mostly inhabited by artisans and was an industrial town. The excavations unearthed include a terracotta model of a bullock cart and a bronze toy cart.

7.4 Dholavira :

Dholavira is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana. It is situated in Kutch region of Gujarat. The ancient mounds of Dholavira were first explored by J.P. Joshi of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) but extensive excavations were conducted there in 1990-91 by a team of archaeologists lead by R.S. Bisht of the ASI. The most unique feature of the site is its division into, not two parts as in other cities, but three sections. The third section is in the form of an open ground situated outside the fortified area. There are two inner enclosures – the first one hemmed in the citadel which probably housed the highest authority and the second one protected the middle town meant for the close relatives of the ruler and the other officials. Other important material finds recorded from Dholavira are remains of a horse, many copper objects including a bronze animal figurine, evidence of copper – working, bead working and other craft activities. A number of typical Harappan seals, some inscribed, have also been found.

7.5 Lothal :

Lothal is situated about 80 km south west of Ahmedabad in Dholka taluk in Gujarat. The excavations at this site by S.R. Rao in 1954-62 have brought to light five period sequences of cultures. It was an important trading and manufacturing centre of the Harappan civilization. It was the only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main sea port of the Indus people.

Lothal appears to have been a mini Harappa or Mohenjodaro. However, Lothal appears to be better planned than Mohenjodaro in a respect. The streets at Lothal are straight and constantly run in cardinal direction. It was nearly rectangular, with the longer axis running from north to south. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection. Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BCE). The other Indus site, where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad. Metal workers, shell ornament makers and bead maker shops have been discovered here also. Evidence for the use of horse comes from a doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse. The discovery of the Persian Gulf seal and the reserved, Slipware suggests that Lothal was engaged in maritime activities of the Indus civilization.

7.6 Kalibangan :

The literal meaning of Kalibangan is black bangles. It is situated on the southern bank of the present dry Ghaggar River in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. It was first excavated by A. Ghosh in 1953. Later the excavations were conducted by B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar in 1961. It is one of the two Indus cities which have both Proto-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. In its proto Harappan phase the fields were ploughed. But in the Harappan phase, they were not ploughed but dug up. Traces of the remains of massive brick walls around both the citadel and the lower town have been discovered here. Archaeologists discovered two platforms with fire altars suggesting the practice of the cult of sacrifices. Interestingly, Kalibangan has given evidence of the earliest earthquake ever revealed through an excavation, dating back to 2600 BCE.

7.7 Rakhigarhi :

Rakhigarhi is situated in Jind district of Haryana. It was excavated under the leadership of Professor Surajbhan and Acharya Bhagwandev. It is considered as the ‘Provincial Capital’ of the Harappan civilization. It is one of the largest Harappan sites. The evidence of mud brick structure of granary sub divided into cubicles indicates surplus production of food grains and storage system. The site has also yielded samples of barley, wheat, and rice. The dead were buried in a long pit in a north south orientation. Grave goods generally consisted of pots behind the head of the dead.

Ropar in Punjab, Rangapur and Surkotada in Gujarat, Mittathal and Banwali in Haryana, Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, Kotdiji and Ali Murad in Sindh, Suktagendor in Baluchistan, Balakot and Alahdino near Karachi in Pakistan are the other important sites of the Harppan civilization. Despite of the fact that a large number of sites associated with it discovered since 1946, the culture itself is still best known by the two cities of Mohenjadaro and Harappa.

8. Common characteristic features of Harappa and Mohenjodaro

Harappa and Mohenjodaro show a surprising similarity although they were separated by about 350 miles. In each city, the archaeologists found an acropolis and a lower city, each fortified separately. The acropolis situated to the west of each city and rose on an artificial mound made of bricks, contained large assembly halls and edifices which were obviously constructed for religious cults. The main streets in each city were of considerable width, but the lanes are considerably narrower. The salient feature is perhaps the large scale use of burnt-brick drains. The drainage system seems to have been quite extensive, at least at Mohenjodaro and Lothal. At both places, there were drains in all the larger streets and quite often in the smaller lanes also. Many houses had a spacious interior courtyard and private wells. All houses were built with standardized bricks. The width of each brick was twice as much as its height and as its length. Wood was used extensively along with brick in the construction of houses. Remains of staircases, usually steep and narrow, suggest in some cases, an upper storey. The roofing was of mud-plastered reed matting, supported by timber. The plastering was normally of clay. Harappa and Mohenjodaro shared a common system of weights and measures based on binary numbers and the decimal system.

9. Town planning and structures and urbanism:

Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. Harappa, Mohenjadaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. This was possibly meant for the occupation of the members of the ruling class. The outer periphery of the citadel and the bastions at regular intervals were meant for the defense of the inmates at times of danger. The citadel in the case of Harappa is provided with entrance gateways. Recent excavations conducted at Banwali gives us the citadel area was in the shape of a horse shoe and it is provided with a deep moat of three meters depth extending all around the settlement area. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people.

The remarkable fact about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. According to it, roads cut across one another almost at right angles, and the city was divided into so many blocks. The large scale use of burnt bricks in all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappa culture. Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks. They were also subjected to regular cleaning. Stone slabs or bricks were put as covers over them in such a way that they could easily be removed for the purpose of cleaning. The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate, systematic and scientific.

The most remarkable of the public buildings of the Harappan were the granaries. They constituted important part of the towns. The public baths are the other important building in the Harappan cities. The most important one situated in the citadel mound at Mohanjodaro was the great bath – a vast hydropathic compartment. It was an example of beautiful brick work. It is a rectangular tank and measures 11.99 x 7.01 m and 2.43 m deep. At the north and south ends of the great bath brick steps led to the bottom of the tank, which could be emptied by a drain. There were side rooms for changing clothes. Lamp posts, discovered at regular intervals at the Harappan sites indicate street lighting facilities. There was watch and ward system for different quarters in the cities. Thus, Harappan age witnessed the first urbanization.

10. Social Life:

The main source of information for the reconstruction of the social life of the Harappans is the antiquities unearthed through the excavations. It has been stated by some that the Harappan society was a class divided society. It appears that this classification was based on the economic status of an individual in the society. This is amply attested by the division of the Harappan cities into various sectors or divisions. Domestication of animals was the other important feature in the social life of the Harappans. The Harappans showed interest in the domestication of animals like oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, camels etc. Horse was known to the Harappans. The clay models of horse and the skeletal remains of horse were found in Mohenjodaro, Lothal and Surkotada. But the Harappans never used horse regularly and in a desired way.

10.1 Food:

The Harappans used both non-vegetarian and vegetarian food. Wheat, barley, milk, vegetables, oil, millets and fruits were included in the diet of the Harappan people. In addition, animal food such as beef, mutton, pork, poultry, river-water fish and dried fish from the sea were also eaten.

10.2 Dress, Hair-styles and Ornaments:

The Harappan men and women showed great liking for dress and hair styles. Cotton and Wool were used for the preparation of the dress. The costume as revealed by the terracotta figurines of the Mother Goddess tells that the ladies were scantily dressed. It appears that the Harappan women were highly beauty conscious. They used different kinds of hair styles i.e., pigtails, plaited hair and bun type. The dancing girl from Mohenjodaro had a pony tail. The men had several styles of hair dressing. Beards were trimmed and upper lips were shaven. Completely shaven faces with a small beard on a chin was also noticed. Combs made of wood and ivory collirium, antimony rods or brushes, bangles and various types of ornaments were used by women. The women decorated themselves with ornaments and semi-precious stones. Metals were utilized for manufacturing various ornaments. Women wore a fan-shaped head dress, headband, earrings, fingerings, bangles and bracelets of gold, silver, copper, bronze, shell, etc. It is interesting to note that Chanhudaro finds indicated the use of lip sticks.

10.3 Amusements:

Harappans practiced mostly indoor games like dancing and dicing. On a few seals, hunting of wild rhino and antilope were shown. Models of several hunting dogs including bull dogs had been found. Fishing was a regular occupation. A large number of toys and objects used in games have been unearthed from all the important sites. The favourite toy was the baked clay cart, singing birds were kept in cages. Bulls with nodding heads, monkey with movable arms, figures which ran up and down a string were complex toys and must have produced by professional toy makers. Chessmen of stone have been found.

11. Economic Life:

The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency in various crafts and brisk trade, internal and external.

11.1 Agriculture:

The Harappan economy was an agrarian economy. They exploited the fertile flood plains of the Indus basin to the maximum. They knew the art of ploughing, but they used wooden ploughs. The plough marks discovered at Kalibangan and the discovery of a terracotta plough model at Banwali bear evidence to it. There is no evidence to show that canal water irrigation was known to the Harappans. The most important reason for the fertility of the Indus basin seems to have been the annual inundation of the Indus River. The Harappans sowed seeds in the flood plains in November when the flood water receded to river and reaped the harvest of wheat and barley in the month of April before the advent of floods; Main crops were wheat and barley. Evidence for the cultivation of rice comes only from Lothal and Rangpur in Gujarat. No excavation has yet revealed evidence of sugarcane, though it is considered to have been in cultivation. Other crops included dates, mustard, sesamum, cotton and varieties of leguminous plants such as field peas. The Harappans were the first to grow cotton in the world. The Greeks, in the fourth century BCE observed it and called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.

11.2 Industries:

The Harappans also showed considerable interest in the development of industries. Various industries were flourished during this period. There is enough evidence to suggest the presence of specialized groups of artisans such as bronze smiths, gold smiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat builders, terracotta manufacturers and others. Some of these crafts such as brick making must have been state controlled crafts. Bricks of various sizes and shapes were used by the Harappans for the construction of private and public buildings. Kilns of bricks are found in various Harappan sites. Charming and attractive pots were discovered in the excavations. They were in red, black and ochre-red in colour. They were decorated with birds, fish, animals, plants, trees etc. The seals are found in abundance in almost all the Harappan sites. They were generally made of steatite. They were either in square or rectangular in shape. These seals were highly artistic and possessed script. The script is pictographic in nature and character. Balakot of Baluchistan, Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres for shell working and bangle making. Lothal and Chanhudaro were also centres for the manufacture of beads of carnelian. Large number of terracotta objects were discovered through excavations conducted at different Harappan sites. Iron was not known to the Harappans.

11.3 Trade and Commerce:

The very fact that the Harappan economy based on specialization shows that trade must have been the basis of economic activity. The Harappan cities did not possess the necessary raw materials and hence the Harappans had to maintain trade within the sub-continent and also outside the sub-continent. Further the Harappans for the distribution of their finished goods maintained trade links within and outside the sub-continent. Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, South India, parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (modern Iraq) and Bahrain.

Main imports consisted of precious metals like gold (from Afghanistan, Persia and south India), Copper (Rajasthan, Baluchistan and Arabia), tin (from Afghanistan and Bihar) and several semi precious stones like lapis lazuli (Afghanistan), Turquoise (Persia), agate (Saurashtra), Jade (central Asia) and conch-shells (Saurashtra and Deccan).

Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barley, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products such as cotton goods, pottery, beads, shell and bone inlays, terracotta statues, ivory products etc.,

There is ample literary as well as archaeological evidence of trade links between the Sumerian and Indus people. The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluta, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Sir Leonard holly conducted excavations in several Sumerian sites like Ur, Susa, Lagash and Tel Asmar. The discovery of some two dozen Harppan seals in the Sumerian sites clearly indicated that the Harappans maintained trade links with the Sumerians. The discovery of some cylindrical seals and few metal objects of Sumerian origin in the Harappan sites also attest the trade links between the Harappans and Sumerians.

The Harappans had sea ports. Lothal, Surkotada, and Sutkagendor were actively engaged in the maritime trade with west Asia. The figure of ship on the seal at Mohenjodaro also supports the evidence of overseas trade and also the use of boats for that purpose. Bullock carts and pack oxen were employed for land transport.

It is evident from the above discussion that the Harappans had sizable agricultural surplus, developed industries and flourishing internal and international trade. The balance of trade on the other hand was left in favour of Harappans.

12. Political set up:

There is no clear cut evidence about the nature of the polity. According to D.D.Kosambi the priests constituted the ruling class, but according to R.S.Sharma the merchants were the rulers. Whatever might be the nature of political organization, it is evident that the Harappans had very efficient and well organized administrative machinery.

13. Religious Life:

The information on the religious life of the Harappans is very meagre and indirect based solely on the seals, seal impressions, terracotta and metal figures, cemeteries etc., The Harappans believed in polytheism i.e., belief in many gods. The Harappans personified the natural surroundings beyond their understanding with human and animal forms and offered their respect and reverence. The best example of this was the Earth goddess or the Mother goddess worshipped by the Harappans. The Harappans looked upon earth as fertility goddess and worshipped in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess i.e. Isis. Among the male gods, the most remarkable is a three faced deity wearing a horned head dress, seated cross legged on a throne and surrounded by elephant, tiger, buffalo and rhinoceros. He has been rightly identified as Siva in his Pasupati aspect i.e., as the lord of the beasts. The Harappans also knew and even practiced phallic worship. The worship of tree, fire and water also seems to have been in vogue. They worshipped pipal tree, humped bull and unicorn. The discovery of altar at Lothal and a seal depicting seven rayed sun indicates the worship of fire and sun.

14. Decline and collapse of Harappan Civilization:

Scholars have put forward a number of theories to explain the decline and final collapse of the Harappan civilization. It is certain that the two major cities of the Indus civilization – Harappa and Mohenjodaro – were completely abandoned by 1700 BCE.

• Martimer wheeler believed that the invading Aryans destroyed the Indus settlements and the Harappan cultural tradition, Indra has been referred as Purandhara – the destroyer of Harappan cities.
• Some archaeologists attribute the decreasing fertility and increasing salinity of the soil caused by the expanding neighbouring Thar Desert are the reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization.
• The earthquakes caused in the Himalayas which are Fold Mountains may have resulted in a shift in the Ghaggar-hakra River, destroyed cities in the process.
• A steep decline in trade causing a severe economic depression may have turned many urban centres into ghost towns.
• It is also stated that extensive Indus floods were also responsible for the decline of the Harappan culture.

15. Survival and continuity of the Indus Civilization:

In the field of religion, it may be suggested that the worship of Pasupati Siva in his actual form as well as in the representative form as Linga, the female deity interpreted as mother goddess, sacred tree, animals, serpent etc which were prevalent in the Harappan religion were adopted in later Hinduism. Punch marked coins; the die-struck and cast varieties of ancient Indian coins appear to be indebted to the Indus valley for their form. In the field of science and technology, the Harappan civilization greatly contributed to the similar future developments. The foundation of India’s brisk maritime trade with central and west Asia was also laid by the Harappan people. Thus, the Harappan civilization remained a source of the ‘Civilization Process’ and many of its features were amalgamated in the warp and woof of later Indian Civilization.

  Web links

•  http://www.harappa.com
• http://asi.nic.in
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oUtaO-g9Vw
• http://www.harappa.com/har/har0.html
• http://www.harappa.com/har/indus-saraswati-geography.html
• http://www.harappa.com/indus3/e2.html
• http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/rakhigarhi-now-biggest-harappan-site-after-two-new-mounds-discovered-001500
• http://asijaipurcircle.nic.in/Kalibangan%20-%20Ancient%20mound.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavira
• http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_dholavira.asp
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daya_Ram_Sahni
• http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/sarasvati/html/Proper-1.ht
• https://earthistheaim2.wordpress.com/2012/07/16/part-4-the-indo-european-chapter-7-indo-european-sites/