27 Jahangir and Shahjahan : Policies and their Achievements

Mohammad Nazrul Bari

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I. JAHANGIR

 

I.1.Early Days of Jahangir

 

Salim (Jahangir) was born on August 30, 1569. His mother was the Rajput princess of Amber whom Akbar married in 1562. Akbar who lost all children in his early youth desired an heir who should live to inherit his vast empire. With the blessings of Sheikh Salim Chishti, a son was born, who was thus called Muhammed Sultan Salim. The other two sons born later-Prince Murad and Prince Daniyal died in prime youth. Akbar made arrangements for the education of Salim and a series of able tutors were appointed to teach the prince Persian, Turki, Arabic and Hindi. The most notable was Abdur Rahim Khan, son of Bairam Khan who influenced the prince the most. According to the custom of the dynasty Salim was associated with the work of military administration at an early age. In 1585 he was elevated to the rank of I2000.

 

I.2. Salim’s Revolt 1599-1604:

 

Salim was anxious to grasp sovereign power and rose in revolt against his father 1599 when Akbar was away in the Deccan. He made an unsuccessful attempt to seize Agra and set up an independent Government at Allahabad. Akbar was obliged to conclude the siege of Asirgarh and hasten to the north by the middle of I60I but took a lenient view and offered the rebel prince the Governorship of Bengal and Orissa but failed to win him. Akbar refrained from taking military action against him as he was the only surviving son of Akbar and was entitled to succeed him to the throne. A conspiracy was hatched by Raja Man Singh and others to deprive Salim of his legitimate right of succession by preferring the claim of the latter’s own son prince Khusrao to the throne. For some time even Akbar rallied round this thought but then gave up. The fear of being superseded by his own son brought Salim to his senses. He hastened to Agra and sought forgiveness from his father. Meanwhile Akbar’s health began to fail. There were two parties at the court. One party was supporting Salim and the other his son Khusrao. A few days before Akbar’s death, Salim was nominated heir-apparent to the throne. Salim ascended the throne in October 1605 after the death of Akbar and assumed the title of Jahangir.

 

I.3. Early Measures:

 

Soon after his accession to the throne Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by various measures. He released prisoners and struck coins in his name. He issued I2 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his empire:-

 

I.          Prohibition of cesses.

 

II.         Regulations about highway robbery and theft

 

III.       Free inheritance of property of deceased person

 

IV.     Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor

 

V.       Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments VI. Prohibition of forcible seizure of property

 

VII. Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick VIII. Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days

 

IX.   Respect pay to Sunday

 

X.        General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs

 

XI.     Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of prayer and praise (of God)

 

XII     Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds

 

He also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in the fort of Agra and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Jamuna to enable the people to approach him without any hindrences. Jahangir lost no time in acquiring firm hold over the entire State machinery. He pardoned his political opponents and accorded generous treatment to them. The few changes that Jahangir effected in the office of the state were intended to secure him a band of supporters. He rewarded Bir Singh Bundela the murderer of Abul Fazl with the dignity of Commander of three thousand horses while Abdur Rahman was assigned the mansab of 2000. Mirza Ghiyas Beg a Persian immigrant, father of Noor Jahan received the office of the imperial Dewan with the title of Itimad- Ud-Dula.

 

I.4. Jahangir and the Deccan:

 

It will be remembered that Akbar had conquered the whole of Khandesh and a part of Ahmednagar and had hastily concluded his Deccan campaign with the siege of Asirgrah in 1601 on account of Salim’s rebellion. It was now Jahangir’s task to attempt the conquest and annexation of rest of Ahmednagar and if possible of the remaining states of Bijapur and Golkonda.

 

I.4.1. Ahemdnagar: Akbar had conquered only a part of the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar including the capital town while the major portion of the state remained with the Nizamsahi nobles. The main obstacle in the way was Malik Amber the Abyssinian minister and general of the Nizamshahi kingdom. He is one of the greatest statesmen that medieval India produced. After the death of Akbar he took up arms against the Mughals and took away the territories including the historic fort of the Ahmednagar from the Mughals. It was a blow to the Mughal prestige. Malik Amber was not a man of ordinary talents. He had both military and administrative talents. He had remodeled the revenue system of his state on the principles of Raja Todarmal. He was a master of the military tactics of the Marathas and had trained the Marathas in the Ahmednagar army in guerilla war fare. He developed a system of fighting well suited to the hilly regions of the Maratha country. He also strengthened his position by organizing an anti-Mughal coalition with the neighbouring sultanates of Bijapur and Golkonda forces. His tolerance won for him the support of the Hindus also to fight with such a formidable enemy was no easy task. Jahangir’s Deccan policy was the continuation of his father’s Policy. From 1608 onwards large Mughal armies led successfully by Abdur Rahim Khan –i- Khanna, prince Parvez and Khan Jahan Lodhi failed to produce the desired result. The repeated failures of the Mughal before Malik Amber affected the Mughal prestige. On the advice of Noor Jahan Jahangir decided to place prince Khurram the incharge of the Deccan. He reached Burhanpur the Mughal headquarter in the south in march 1617 and immediately opened negotiation with Malik Amber. Overawed by superior force Malik Amber accepted the terms of treaty with prince Khurram according to which he ceded Ahmednagar and some other strong holds to the Mughals and the Nizamshashi ruler acknowledged Jahangir as his suzerain. The treaty was hailed at the Mughal court. For this victory Prince Khurram also honoured by the emperor with the Title of Shahjahan. But he merely gathered the political fruits of previous campaigns. The Mughal victory however, was not of permanent nature. Within two years Malik Amber again raised his head. He occupied much of the lost territory and in 1620 laid siege to the fort of Ahmedagar with the assistance of the troops of Bijapur and Golkonda. Shahajahan took the command of the Deccan campaign for the second time. The same results followed. On the arrival of the imperial troops Malik Amber raised the siege of Ahmednagar and concluded peace. Shahajahan was anxious to bring the Deccan campaign to a speedy conclusion. Owing to Noor Jahan’s changed attitude towards him he hurriedly concluded peace with Malik Amber and his allies in 1621. Malik Amber promised to restore the territories occupied by him from the Mughals during the previous two years. Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda agreed to pay Fifty lakhs rupees as tribute. Thereafter Malik Amber took advantage of the revolt of Shah Jahan (1623) to consolidate his position. He did not allow respite to the Mughal armies in occupation of the territories of Ahmednagar till his death in 1626. The Deccan problem remained as unsolved as ever. The victory of the Mughal over Ahmednagar was more apparent than real.It has been justly remarked by Dr.Beni Prasad ―Nothing could conceal the stern reality that the expenditures of millions of rupees and thousands of lives had not advanced the Mughal frontiers a single line beyond the limits of 1605.‖

 

I.4.2. Loss of Kandahar:

 

On account of its situations and importance both commercial and strategic Kandahar was a constant source of friction between the Mughals and the Persians. It has been noted elsewhere that it was acquired by Akbar in 1595 and it remained a part of the Mughal Empire until the death of Akbar. The Persians never forgot the loss of Kandahar. Jahangir’s contemporary on the throne of Persia was Shah Abbas. The revolt of prince Khusrav at the beginning of the Jahangir’s reign gave the Persians an opportunity to attack Kandahar but it was gallantly repelled by Shahbeg Khan. Shah Abbas who was a skilled diplomat expressed his disapproval of the conduct of his subjects and informed Jahangir that he had knowledge of the affair, Jahangir accepted his explanation. The Persians, however did not give up all hopes of regaining Kandahar. Shah Abbas having failed to win the place by open war employed diplomacy to further his end. He sent four diplomatic missions to the Mughal court in 1611, 1615, 1616 and 1620 with rich presents to please the Mughal Monarch and thereby putting him of his guard. Taking advantage of the internal disorder in the empire in 1621 owing to the political estrangement between Noor Jahan and Shah Jahan the Persians besieged Kandahar in 1621 and finally took it in 1622. Jahangir thought of elaborate preparations of war which he hoped to carry right to the Persian capital but his plans were frustrated by Shah Jahan who refused to lead the expedition as he knew that during his absence from the capital Nur Jahan would do her best to ensure his exclusion from the throne and push the claims of Shahryar her son in law. Thus Kandahar was lost to the Mughals. Shah Abbas sent ambassador to Jahangir saying that the Persian king had a rightful claim to Kandahar, but expressed the hope that the two empires would remain friendly. Jahangir accused the Shah of treachery. He ordered prince Parvez to recover the fortress but this could not be done owing to Shah Jahan’s rebellions.

 

I.5. Nur-Jahan :

 

Now we come to the most interesting part of Jahangir’s story. All the remaining events as well as some of those already narrated are to be connected with the advent of Nur Jahan .Jahangir’s marriage with Nur Jahan is one of the most important events in history of world. For full I5 years she stood forth as the most striking and most powerful personality in the Mughal Empire. She exercised tremendous influence on personal life of Jahangir and also played significant role in shaping the events of his reign. Nur Jahan’s original name was Mehr-Un-Nisa. She was the daughter of a Persian noble Mirza Ghiyas Beg who with his family migrated to India during the reign of Akbar. She was born on the way to India at Kandahar. Mirza Ghiyas Beg was introduced to Akbar by a Merchant and Akbar immediately admitted him into imperial service. He steadily rose in rank and influence by virtue of his character and Scholarship. Mehr-us-nisa grew up to be a charming girl and at the age of 17 was married, a Persian adventurer better known as Sher Afghan. After his marriage he was taken into imperial service and was on the personal staff of prince Salim, on his accession to the throne Jahangir appointed Sher Afghan faujdar of Bardwan (Bengal) and granted him a Jagir there. Suspected of treasonable designs he was summoned by the Governor of Bengal. At an interview there was scuffle and both were killed in 1607. Mehr-un-Nisa the widow of Sher Afghan along with her young daughter Ladli Begum was brought to the capital, Akber’s Widow. In March 1611 that is four years after the death of her husband Jahangir saw Mehr-ua-Nisa and was charmed by her Beautiful appearance. He married her in May 1611 and made her his chief queen giving her the little of Nur Jahan (light of the world).

 

At the time of her marriage with Jahangir, Nur Jahan was in her 35th year but she still possessed the beauty of her early youth. She proved to be an intellectual with a political bent of mind. She took her keen interest in the formulation of state policy. She could understand the intricate problem of the state politics in an instant. Jahangir was so much impressed by her that he made her a partner in the administrative of the state. He granted Nur Jahan rights of sovereignty and government. Coins were struck in her name. On all the farmans also the name of Nur Jahan was jointly attached along with the imperial signature. At last her authority reached such a pass that the king was only in name.

 

Jahangir’s period of rule from I6II to his death in 1627 was marked by the ascendancy of Nur Jahan in state affairs. This period of Nur Jahan’s ascendancy can be divided into two parts. During the first part i.e. from 1611 to 1622 when Jahangir was at the helm of affairs, although he was guided and influenced by Nur Jahan and her party called Nurjahan Junta. While during the second part from I622 to I627 Nur Jahan was completely dominating the imperial court.

 

During the first phase of her influence from 1611 to 1622 she secured high positions for her father who got the title of Itimad-ud-Dula and was given the mansab of 7000. Her brother was promoted to the rank of prime minister of the empire. In 1612 Asif Khan’s daughter Arjuman Banu Begum better known as Mumtaz Mahal was married to prince Khurram, the third son of Jahangir and since then the prince became a favorite of Nurjahan and rapidly rose into prominence at the court as the prospective successor of Jahangir .For ten years this clique of four supremely capable persons. The queen, her father, brother and prince Khurram, practically ruled the empire and constituted the Nur Jahan Junta. It was due to her influence that prince Khurram was appointed to command the Mewar and Deccan campaigns. Gradually the influence of Nur Jahan over Jahangir increased so much that he leaned more and more to ease and left administration exclusively in her hands. To the good fortune of the people Nur Jahan governed the country successfully with the able Assistance of the Nur Jahan Junta.

 

The second phase of Nur Jahan’s ascendancy is from 1622 to 1627 which is marked by complete authority in her hands. Jahangir’s health had begun to fail. Unfortunately Nur Jahan’s mother Asmat Begum who acted as her counselor died in I62I and her husband Itimad-ud-Daula who was the strongest pillar of the Nur Jahan Junta followed her in I622. Both these deaths led to the breakup of the Nur Jahan Junta. Nur Jahan’s relations with her brother Asaf Khan and his Son-in-law Shah Jahan were also strained because in I62I she gave her daughter Ladli Begum (By Sher Afghan) in marriage to prince Shahryar the youngest son of Jahangir and now she began to beck up her son-in-law for succession to the throne. The queen and the prime minister did not see eye to eye with each other, however, for the time being she was in an advantageous position because the emperor fell virtually under her exclusive influence. Nur Jahan’s excessive interference in the state affairs did have some bad effects during this period. It will be remembered that the Persians captured Kandahar in 1622 and Jahangir had ordered Shah Jahan to lead the expedition for its recovery but Shah Jahan refused to move as he doubted that his absence from the capital might be utilized by Nur Jahan who prejudiced his claims to the throne and to strengthen those of her son-in-law Shahryar. To a great extent Nur Jahan was responsible for the loss of Kandahar in 1622. She was also responsible for two more rebellions during this period. The first is Shah Jahan’s rebellion (1623-1625) and the second is Mahabat Khan’s rebellions in 1626.

 

I.6.1. Shah Jahan’s Rebellions (1623-1625):

 

The estrangement between Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan had been growing since 1620 onwards. Nur Jahan wanted to retain her political ascendancy after Jahangir’s death through the installation of prince Shahryar as emperor. At the same time Shah Jahan was ambitions to succeed his father. Nur Jahan knew that Shah Jahan was a man of strong personality and was not likely to share power with Nur Jahan if he succeeded in securing the throne. Thus the issue of succession made them direct opponents. Also Nur Jahan was liberal and tolerant towards other faiths. Shah Jahan was a staunch Sunni. Increasing Persian supremacy at the court was not liked by him. Nur Jahan tried to disgrace Shah Jahan in the eyes of Jahangir which compelled him to revolt against his father in 1623. At first he intended to march to Agra but an imperial army under the command of Mahabat Khan completely defeated him. He first proceeded to the Deccan and was then driven to Bengal but unable to maintain his control, he returned to Deccan and for a few years wandered about seeking the alliance of Malik Amber and others but finding that with his exhausted resources further resistance was not possible. He made submission to the emperor in 1625. Shah Jahan’s rebellion which lasted for three years convulsed empire with a civil war causing tremendous loss to the royal treasury and creating serious law and order problems for the government. This happened primarily because of Nur Jahan’s excessive indulgence in power politics.

 

 

I.6.2. Mahabat Khan’s Rebellions (1626):

 

Mahabat Khan had been responsible for many imperial victories. During Shah Jahan’s rebellions his prestige had increased considerably. His growing fame and power was not liked by Nur Jahan. She could not tolerate the existence of an indomitable personality like Mahabat Khan. On the other hand Mahabat Khan was equally ambitious and did not like to take orders from anyone except his real sovereign Jahangir. Moreover Mahabat Khan supported the claim of prince Parvez the eldest son of Jahangir to the throne. Nur Jahan began to hatch a plot to bring about the fall of Mahabat Khan. She framed charge of disloyalty against him which forced Mahabat Khan to rebel. By a bold coup he made Jahangir a prisoner on the bank of river Jhelum while the emperor was on his way to Kabul.

 

Nur Jahan managed to escape but all her attempts to rescue her husband by force having failed. She joined him in confinement. She and her husband was finally able to affect their escape to Rohtas. Mahabat Khan was forgiven by the emperor and was ordered to proceed to Thatta where Shah Jahan was again on war path. He obeyed the order but instead of fighting made peace with Shah Jahan. By this time Jahangir’s health was completely shattered.

 

I.7. Death and legacy of Jahangir:

 

Jahangir went to Kashmir in March 1627 but even Kashmir failed to help the restoration of health so he returned to Lahore. While he was the way, he was taken ill and he died on 28 October, 1627. He was buried in a beautiful garden at Shahdara near Lahore. Jahangir is one of the most interesting figures in Mughal History. All accounts agree that he was intelligent, and capable of understanding the most complex problems of the state without any difficulty he was a capable general who could plan and lead military campaign. He was stern in administering justice. Law and order were not neglected and he proved to be a fairly successful ruler and procure the murder of Abul Fazal and also pity the royal elephant because they shivered in winter then they sprinkled themselves with cold water. Jahangir was highly educated and cultured prince. He had mastered Persian and Turki language. His memoirs entitled Tuzk-i- Janangiri is an excellent example of his literary attainment. He was fond of beauties of nature. His intimate knowledge of the flora and fauna of Kashmir and other parts of Hindustan will cause surprise to a naturalist in these days. Mughal painting and music reached high standard under his patronage. He took delight in laying out fine gardens. Some of the gardens in Kashmir and Lahore were laid out at his orders. He fully encouraged the growth of Persian literature.

 

Some European historians consider Jahangir as a fickle-minded tyrant, Indian authors regard him as a just and noble ruler. Most writers now agree that he was a highly educated and cultured man. His autobiography is a testimony of his interest in subjects like botany and zoology. Among the notable buildings renovated by him, Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra is the most remarkable. He altered its design and partly rebuilt it. Under his patronage, a great mosque was built in Lahore; it rivals the grand mosque in Delhi, built by his son, Shah Jahan. But he did not possess the high idealism and genius of Akbar. The administrative machinery of his father was allowed to remain untouched. The vakil (chief minister) remained the highest dignitary next to the emperor. A liberal ruler, he made no departure from his father’s policy of admitting Hindus to higher public services. On the whole, Jahangir was a successful ruler and his people were well off. Agriculture, industries, and commerce flourished. Jahangir’s diary is brimming with his ideas for promoting social justice and administrative efficiency, and in most cases he tried to follow or outdo the liberal ideas of his father, but he was less successful in putting them into effect.

 

II.  Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658)

 

II. 1. Early life and accession:

 

Jahangir had four sons- Khusrau, Parvez, Khurram, and Shahryar. Prince Khurram later styled as Shah Jahan was born on January 5, I592 at Lahore. While young he was a favourite of his grandfather Akbar. The prince was given best education and military training. He was very intelligent and smart. He possessed a strong will and character. He enjoyed a reputation for being a total abstainer from alcohol. Early during his father’s reign prince Khurram was marked out for the throne. In 1607 he was appointed a mansabdar of 8,000 zat and 5,000 sawar. In 1608 the jagir of hissar Firoza was conferred on him. In 1612 he was married to a Arjumand Banu Begum better known as Mumtaz Mahal who was the daughter of Asif Khan brother of Nur Jahan. It was at this time that Nur Jahan was fast raising into prominence. As mentioned in the last lesson Prince Khurram became a prominent member of the Nur Jahan Junta. He was looked upon as the future ruler of the country and his Mansab was raised to 30,000 zat and 20,000 sawar. He took part in a number of important expeditions during his father’s reign. His success against Mewar and the way he had succeeded in dictating terms to Malik Amber in the Deccan convinced Jahangir that the prince had an aptitude for military generalship. He bestowed upon him the title of Shan Jahan to mark his pleasure. But there was a sudden fall in the fortune of prince Khurram after the marriage of prince Shahryar with Ladli Begum, daughter of Nur Jahan in 1620. Nur Jahan now backed the claims of Shahryar which forced Shah Jahan to revolt in 1623. Eventually he submitted to his father in 1626. Prince Khusrau who had revolted against Jahangir in 1606 was put to death by prince Khurram in 1622. Parvez died in 1626 therefore when Jahangir died in 1628 Nur Jahan made a final bid at that time was in the Deccan. Fortunately for him his father-in-Law Asaf Khan won over nobles to his side and proclaimed Dawar Bakash son of Khusrau as king so that the throne was not left vacant. Shah Jahan hurried to Delhi from the Deccan. Shahryar proclaimed himself emperor at Lahore. The rival forces of Shahryar and Asif Khan met near Lahore. Shahryar was defeated, blinded and imprisoned. Shah Jahan marched to Agra and ascended the throne in February 1628. All his possible rivals including Dawar Baksh and Shahryar were killed. Truly Shah Jahan waded the throne through the blood of his own kinsmen which is an indelible stain on his memory. Nur Jahan was pensioned off to live in retirement in Lahore where she built her husband’s mausoleum, carried on the works of charity and died in 1645.There were two great rebellions at the commencement of Shah Jahan’s reign.

 

II. 2. Bundela rebellion (I625 AD):

 

In the first year of his accession to the throne Shah Jahan had to face the rebellion of Jujhar Singh, son of Bir Singh Bundela who killed Abul Fazal at the instigation of prince Salim. The Bundelas had been committing many cruelties against their neighbours. They had increased their power and riches by blackmailing the neighbours. Jujhar Singh showed signs of rebellion therefore Shah Jahan lost no time in making preparations to deal with the rebellion. Mahabat Khan was ordered to put down the rebellion in Bundelkhand. The Bundela territory was ordered to be surrounded from three different directions. Jujhar Singh who never imagined the Mughal attack on such a vast scale was taken aback. In the battle that ensued his fort was captured and nearly two to three thousand of his men were slained. At last he offered submission. He was required to pay I,000 gold mohars, 40 elephants and 15 lakhs as fine. He surrendered a part of his jagir and was ordered to keep in readiness 2,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry to aid the Deccan expedition of the Mughals. A few years after his first revolt, Jhujar Singh rebelled again in 1635. An imperial force under the command of Prince Aurangzeb crushed the rebellion. Jhujar Singh was killed by the Gonds in a chance skirmish in 1635.

 

II. 3. Rebellion of Khan Jahan Lodhi (1629) :

 

Much more serious than the rebellion of Jujhar Singh was that of Khan Jahan Lodhi. He was one of the premier Mughal Officers and Governor of the Deccan. He had been associated with prince Pervez there. But like many other Afghans under Mughal dominance he cherished dreams of Independence. He entered into an alliance with the ruler of Ahmednagar and revolted. Shah Jahan realized the gravity of the situation because if Khan Jahan Lodhi could win over all the rules of Deccan to his side may lead their combined troops against the Mughal Empire. In 1629 Shah Jahan marched personally to Deccan and organized a comprehensive plan of action against the rebels. Chased from place to place, deserted by his allies and having lost his friends and relations in battle the Afghan chief fought desperately against the imperialists for three years but was ultimately defeated at Tal Sehonda near Kalinjar.

 

II. 4. Suppression of The Portuguese (1631 – 1632):

 

The Portuguese were long settled in the Eastern part of Bengal. Hugli was the most important centre of Portuguese trade. They often captured orphan Children of Hindus and Mohammadans and forcibly converted them to Christianity. Slave trade and piracy were important sources of their income. Two slave girls of Queen Mumtaz Mahal were also abducted by them from Hugli. Kasim Khan the Governor of Bengal to punish the Portuguese besieged Hugli by a large Mughal army. After a stiff resistance finally the Portuguese surrendered. Many of them were killed and a large number of them were taken as prisoners to Agra where they were given a choice between conversion to Islam and imprisonment. Some of them became Muslims and other died suffering.

 

II. 5. North West Frontier Policy of Shah Jahan:

 

Kandahar was lost of the Mughals in 1622 in the reign of Jahangir. However, Kandahar was recognized to be an indispensable part of the Mughal Empire and Shah Jahan very much realized that the strategic and commercial importance of Kandahar required that it should be won back from the Persians. It was put under the supervision of Sayyad Khan the Mughal Governor of Kabul who was asked to establish secret contacts with Ali Mardan Khan the Persian governor of Kandahar and tempt him to surrender Kandahar. Fortunately for the Mughals there was a misunderstanding between Ali Mardan Khan and Shah Abbas the Shah of Persia and agreed to surrender the fort to the Mughals in 1638. Ali Mardan Khan was paid a lakh of rupees as compensation and later appointed the Governor of Kashmir and the Punjab. Though in 1638 the Mughal emperor got possession over Kandahar but the Persians had never left the idea to recapture it. Shah Abbas II who had came to the throne in 1642 made vigorous efforts to recapture Kandahar which was a valuable possession from commercial and strategic point of view. The courtiers of Shah Jahan unwisely advised him to postpone the work of opposing the Persians till the season was over. The result was that the Persian forces of Shah occupied the fort in February 1649 owing largely to the weakness of the incapable Mughal commander of Kandahar Daulat Khan. Thus Kandahar was recovered by the Persians after eleven years. Shah Jahan made great attempts to recover Kandahar and sent three expeditions for this purpose in 1649, 1652 and 1653 but his efforts bore no fruit.

 

The first expedition was sent in 1649 and the command was given to Prince Aurangzeb and Sadullah Khan. Kandahar was attacked in May 1649 but the attempt failed before the superior military preparations and the skill of the Persians. The Mughals suffered heavy losses. Shah Jahan was not ready to abandon his design of recapturing Kandahar and after three years second expedition was sent to lay siege to Kandahar, Once again under Prince Aurangzeb and Sadullah Khan in May 1652. The Persians had a powerful park of artillery while the Mughal artillery failed them set a critical moment. The Mughals also found it difficult for the fear of the Persian guerillas to move out in the country side in search of provisions. Therefore they were compelled to raise the siege. Though Prince Aurangzeb tried to persuade him to give him a little more time the emperor was wiser not to do so. Aurangzeb was blamed for the failure of the expedition. The third and the last expedition for the recovery of Kandahar were led by prince Dara in 1653. This time thorough preparations were made for the siege of Kandahar. Dara led a huge army of 70,000 cavalry 5,000 infantry and 10,000 artillery men. Two crore of rupees were sanctioned by Shah Jahan for meeting the expenses of the campaign. The Mughals attacked the fort four times but each time they were confidently resisted by the Persians. Shortage of ammunitions and supplies crippled the Mughals. They were compelled to raise the siege. Kandahar was lost to the Mughals for good. The three futile sieges ruined Mughal prestige in the eyes of all Asia. The belief regarding the invincibility of the imperial Mughals armies was shattered. The expeditions cost the Mughal treasury no less than twelve crores of rupees that is more than half of the Annual income of the state. The flow of trade as also the security of the Frontiers of Baluchistan and Kabul remained exposed to the Persian threat. This kept the rulers of Delhi in a state of serious anxiety and suspense.

 

II. 6. Central Asian Policy of Shah Jahan:

 

The Mughal emperors also cherished the desire of conquering and occupying Trans-Oxiana, their ancestral home land in Central Asia. Babur it will be remembered made many unsuccessful attempts to conquer Samarqand the capital of Timur. Humayun’s efforts also proved futile. Akbar and Jahangir had not been in a position to establish the Mughal rule in that region. While Shah Jahan ever since the beginning of his reign had set his heart upon the conquest of Balkh and Badakshan. It was very difficult to lead large army through the lofty ranges of the Hindukush. But Shah Jahan did not consider any obstacle. He found an opportunity to launch the Central Asian campaign in 1646 when there was a civil war going on in the ruling house of that region. Prince Murad, the youngest son of Shah Jahan and Ali Mardan Khan were sent with a large army who occupied Balkh and Badakeshan in 1646. A man of ease loving habits prince Murad could not bear the hardships of camp life and was sick of the un-congenial climate of Balkh. Without the permission of Shah Jahan, he left Balkh and came back to India leaving the army leader less. Shah Jahan then sent Sadullah Khan to Balkh to set things right and in the next year Prince Aurangzeb was dispatched to Balkh with a large army. One great difficulty of the Mughals was that they were outnumbered by the enemy. Food and water were scarce. Harsh central Asian climate put too much strain on the easy-loving Mughal in the face of which Aurangzeb in spite of his sincere and earnest efforts could achieve nothing and had to retreat to India after suffering terrible hardships.

 

It cannot be denied that the Central Asian policy of Shah Jahan failed miserably. As Sir J.N. Sarkar remarks, ―thus ended Shah Jahan’s fatuous war in Balkh – a war in which the Indian treasury spent four crores of rupees in two years and realized from the conquered country the revenue of two and half lakhs only. Not an inch of territory was annexed, no dynasty changed and no enemy replaced by an ally on the throne of Balkh. The grain stored in Balkh fort worth five lakhs and the provisions in other forts as well were all abandoned, five hundred soldiers fell in the battle and ten times that number were slain by cold and snow on the mountains. Such is the terrible price that aggressive imperialism makes India pay for wars across the north Western Frontier, ―There was no practical reason for undertaking such an adventure because even if conquered the administration and defense of the two provinces would have been difficult and costly. The prestige of the Mughal Empire received serious setback. The Persians took advantage of this situation and captured Kandahar in 1649.

 

II. 7. Deccan Policy of Shah Jahan:

 

Shah Jahan Deccan policy was a continuation of the traditional policy of expansion followed Akbar and Jahangir. When Shah Jahan ascended the throne the Mughals had only whole of Khandesh and a part of Ahmednagar under them, Jahangir’s attempts to conquer Ahmednagar were checked by Malik Amber. Bijapur and Golkonda continued to enjoy independence. It may be mentioned here that while Akbar and Jahangir were actuated by purely political motives in their aggressive policy against the Shia Sultanates Shah Jahan’s were against Shia States were outcome of his religious zeal mixed with Political prejudice. Shah Jahan was more successful in his object than his predecessors firstly because he was more acquainted with the affairs of the Deccan and secondly Malik Ambar who had been the main obstacle in the way was no more alive.

 

II. 7.1 Annexation of Ahmednagar:

 

The Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar because of its proximity to the Mughal Frontier in the south was the first to be reckoned with. After the death of Malik Ambar his son Fateh khan had strained relations with the Sultan of Ahmednagar. Fateh Khan opened negotiations with the Mughals and under the instruction of the Mughal emperor captured the Sultan and put him in prison and ultimately got him murdered. His son was raised to the throne of Ahmednagar. Though he acknowledged formal Mughal suzerainty, Fateh Khan was not loyal to the Mughals also. When the Mughals besieged the fortress of Daulatabad in 1631 he at first turned against the Mughals but was soon won over by them with a bribe of ten lakhs of rupees and surrendered the fortress. The minor Sultan Hussain Shah was sent to Gwalior as prisoner. The Nizamshahi dynasty came to an end in 1633. Fateh Khan entered the imperial service and was granted a liberal salary. The kingdom of Ahmednagar ceased to exist but there was still no peace because its western districts remained for some years under the control of Maratha chief named Shahji Bhonsle father of Shivaji. He placed another boy of the Royal family on the throne and initiated a fight on his behalf. However, even he had to surrender to Shah Jahan in 1636. This finally ended the war with Ahmednagar and its territory was shared by Shahjahan and the Sultan of Bijapur.

 

II. 7.2 Bijapur and Golkonda:

 

The end of Ahmednagar was the prelude to the submission of Bijapur and Golkonda. These two sultanates now became main targets of the Mughal imperialist. The rulers of these two states had secretly helped Shahji who made an attempt to set up a Nizamshah’s boy as Sultan of the now defunct kingdom of Ahmednagar. This enraged Shah Jahan and he asked both the states to acknowledge his suzerainty and to send regular tributes. Shah Jahan personally marched to the Deccan and reached Daulatabad in 1636 in order to press these demands. The two states were informed that if they refused to accept the demands their territories would be attacked. The ruler of Golkonda Abdulah Qutb Shah submitted without resistance and agreed to pay tributes, to read khutba in the name of Shah Jahan and to strike coins in his name. He also agreed to assist the Mughal army in its campaign against Bijapur. Acceptance of this treaty put an end to the sovereignty of Qutb Shah and enhanced the prestige of the Mughal sovereign. The Sultan of Bijapur Mohammad Adil Shah refuses to submit. His kingdom was attacked by Mughal armies from three sides the sultan was forced to sue for peace in May 1636. He acknowledged the suzerainty, agreed to pay an indemnity of 20 lakhs of Rupees, promised not to attack Golkonda which was under imperial protection. He further promised not to assist Shahji Bhonsle.‖Thus after 40 years of strife‖ (1595 to 1636) writes Sir J.N. Sarkar‖the affairs of the Deccan were at last settled. The position of the emperor was asserted beyond challenge, his boundaries defined and his suzerainty over the Sultan Kingdom formally established. Prince Aurangzeb was appointed the victory of Deccan in 1636 and he occupied the post for 8 years (1636-1644). Khirki the new Nizamshahi capital was rechristened Aurangabad and made the head quarter of the Viceroy. Aurangzeb was again appointed Viceroy in 1653 and he held this office till his departure for Northern India in 1658.

 

II.8. Rebellion of Aurangzeb: Death & legacy of Shahjahan

 

His son Aurangzeb led a rebellion when Shah Jahan became ill in 1657 and publicly executed his brother and the heir apparent Dara Shikoh. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort. Jahanara Begum Sahib voluntarily shared his eight-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage.

 

In January of 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill with strangury and dysentery. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on January 22, he commanded the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later year Akrabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. Jahanara planned a state funeral to include a procession with Shah Jahan’s body was buried in a sandalwood coffin by river to the Taj Mahal and interred him next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

 

Shah Jahan’s legacy has been one of the most profound of all the Mughals. A patron of the fine arts, he continued the Mughal patronage of painting, although his passion resided in architecture. Shah Jahan has left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign, with the Taj Mahal standing in the spotlight. His other constructions include Delhi Fort also called the Red Fort or Lal Quila in Delhi, large sections of Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid (Grand Mosque), Delhi, the Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), Lahore, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, sections of the Lahore Fort, Lahore, the Jahangir mausoleum—his father’s tomb, the construction overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the Shahjahan Mosque, Thatta, Pakistan. He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his rule.

 

Painting during his reign reflected the serene prosperity that the Mughals enjoyed with many scenes reflecting Shah Jahan’s interest in romance. A crater has been named after Shah Jahan on the minor planet 433 Eros. Astronomers name craters on Eros after famous fictional and real-life lovers.

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Web links

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir
  • http://www.britannica.com/biography/Jahangir
  • http://islamicart.com/library/empires/india/jahangir.html
  • http://www.slideshare.net/smorparia1/jahangir
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Jahan
  • http://www.paradoxplace.com/Insights/Civilizations/Mughals/Mughals.htm
  • http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/shah-jahan-6737.php
  • http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-persian-connection/
  • http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/akbar.html
  • http://indiaopines.com/facts-jahangir-wives-sons-daughters/