19 Muslim invasions on India (Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor)

P. Bhaskar Reddy

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1. Introduction

 

In the early medieval age India was on the threshold of phenomenal changes in the domains of polity, economy, society and culture. The cultural traits, art and architecture, and the temple-centered devotional movement under Alvars and Nayanars, in peninsular India of Tamil Nadu were creating a new social ethos in the stratified Indian social organization. Politically, there were many powerful Hindu kingdoms in Indian subcontinent, which constantly fought against each other for fame and extension of territories. Many of them were quit extensive and powerful, but, because of their internal conflicts, none of them could utilize its complete resources, nor do they unite themselves. During this period Afghanistan was ruled by two Hindu kingdoms of Jabul and Kabul. While regionalism was taking deep roots on the Indian soil, many significant events were taking place in Europe and Asia in the post-Harsha era, which directly and indirectly influenced the course of our history. At that juncture a new power born on the Arabian soil professing a different faith, Islam, entered India as a political power in the 8th century CE.

 

2. The Arabs and Islam :

 

Prophet Muhammad of Arabia was the founder of Islam. He was born in 570 CE at Mecca in Arabia and passed away in 632 CE. He propagated the Islam both by peace and war. With the rise and spread of Islam, many new things came to be associated with them. In politics all Muslims formed one congregation of the faithful. Islam inspired a war like sprit and national consciousness among the Arabs who decided to spread their new religion and carry on military conquest all over the world. Within a century, the Arabs established a vast empire which extended from the Atlantic sea in the West to banks of the river Indus in the East and from the Caspian Sea in the North to the valley of the river Nile in the South.

 

The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called Khalifa (Caliphs). The first Khalifa was Muhammads father-in-law Abu Bekar. He became the civic head of the Islam and in course of time he came to be regarded as the Deputy of Allah on the earth invested with the spiritual and temporal powers. Omar was the second Khalifa. It was during the Caliphate of Omar the head quarters of the Khalifa was shifted to Demascus, the first capital of the Muhammadan empire. Afterwards the Arabs built Baghdad near the ruins of Babylon and started the conquest of the world. It was during the time of Omar the Arabs thought of conquering Sindh region in India.

 

3. Causes for the Arabs Conquest of Sindh :

 

It is generally believed that the Muslims first came to India in the 8th Century CE. when the Arab invasion of Sindh took place. In fact the Arabs had contacts with India prior to their attack. They were carrying on trade and commerce with Malabar coast of India. The rise of Islam in the beginning of 7th Century CE gave a new direction and dynamism to the political mobility of the Arabs. Afterwards with the growth of their military power their ambition also grew and they desire to capture territories in India.

 

The historians attributed several causes that prompted the Arabs to conquer Sindh and following are some of them.

  • To spread Islam was the primary cause. The propagation of Islam by force had been the aim of all the Khalifas. The attack on Sindh was also a part of that policy.
  • Secondly, the Khalifas were not only the heads of Islamic faith, but also heads of Islamic state. Therefore, like all powerful rulers they also desire to extend their empire. The attack on Sindh was also a part of expansionist policy.
  • Thirdly, the Arabs, having trade relations with India, knew that India was a rich country and land of honey and milk. Thus, the fabulous wealth of India tempted the Arabs to think of the conquest of Sindh.
  • The immediate and primary cause of their attack was trade and commerce, the sea-pirates of Sindh attacked and looted certain Arab ships. Thus, to check the piratical activities and to safe guard the commercial interests, the Arabs invaded Sindh.

 

3.1 Arab Invasions on Sindh :

 

The first attack of the Arabs on Indian territories took place in 636 CE. During the Caliphate of Omar, a novel expedition was sent to capture Thana near Bombay. This attempt ended as failure. Pulakesin II, the early Chalukyan king, drove the Arabs back. Afterwards, they made frequent attempts to get some foot hold in India through both Sea and Land.

 

The second expedition was sent by Omar in the year 644 CE and this was by land through Makran Coast into Western Sindh. In this connection the Pratihara king Nagabhatta I, foiled the attempt of the Arabs.

 

In the mean while the Caliphate became hereditary and it came under the control of the Umayyad dynasty i.e. from 661 to 750 CE. In the 711 CE an expedition was sent by Hajjaj, the Muslim Governor of Iraq, under the command of the most dynamic person Muhammad-bin-Qasim. The invasion of Sindh took place on the pretext of a very insignificant event. Historians have expressed different opinion regarding the incident. The ruler of Iraq demanded that the Raja of Sindh, punish the pirates, when the king refused to yield to the demand, Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the son-in-law of the Governor of Iraq came with army. This invasion and conquest of Sindh was supported by the Khalifa. Muhammad Qasim successfully attacked and occupied Debal, an important port located in the kingdom of Dahir, the most powerful ruler in the Sindh region. Then he conquered Nerun, Siwistan and few other strongholds. Afterwards, the Arabs defeated the army of Dahir in the battles fought at Brahamanabad and Alor.

 

In 713 CE, Muhammad proceeded to attack Multan, after few serious engagements with the enemies; he reached Multan and besieged the fort. As a consequence of these victories the entire Sindh region, Punjab regions along the Indus River came under the control of Arabs. Muhammad, the conqueror of Sindh, could not live long after his successful campaigns. He met a tragic and miserable death because of the shrewd manipulation of Raja Dahir’s daughter Suryadevi. The new Khalifa Sulaiman ordered the execution of Qasim.

 

3.2 Causes for the success of Arabs :

  • Primarily the internal weakness of Sindh region was responsible for its fall.
  • Geographically Sindh was isolated from the rest of India and consequently no ruler of North India took any interest in Sindh.
  • The salinity and lack of fertility of the soil hampered the economic stability of the ruler of Sindh. They could not maintain a strong army to meet the challenges forced by the Arabs.
  • The unpopularity of Dahir also helped the Arabs. Lack of foresight on the part of Dahir was responsible for his defeat.
  • The superior commandership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the religious zeal of the Arabs and their better arms and military tactics were certainly responsible for their success.

 

3.3 The Arabs in Sindh after Muhammad :

 

The Arabs failed to penetrate further into India. The Arab’s thirst for further conquests was put to an end by the valiant efforts of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in western India, while the Gurjara Pratiharas stopped their conquests in northern India.

 

In 750 CE. the Abbasids replaced Umayyads as Khalifas. It led to the conflicts among the Arabs officers in Sindh. Ultimately the power of the Khalifas weakened and they failed to keep control over their distant provinces. Till 871 CE Sindh along with Punjab was under the direct control of the Khalifa but in that year the rulers declared their independence and lived in peace with the Hindus.

 

The Arabs, no doubt conquered Sindh, but they could not enjoy their control over that region for a long time. About the Arab conquest of Sindh Stanley Lane Poole observes “The Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest was only an episode in the history of India and Islam, a triumph without results”.

 

3.4 Impact of Arab Conquest :

 

Politically this was not a great event and yet it left an impact on the Arab culture. The Arab conquest of Sindh did not lead to the establishment of close cultural relations between Arabs and the rest of India.

  • The Arab rule in Sind led to the mingling of two essentially different cultures and the Arab culture got enriched by the Hindu culture and civilization.
  • R.C. Majumdar states: The Arabs acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and folklore and carried not only to their own land but also to Europe.
  • An important factor is that the Arab settled in some of the regions which came under their control.
  • The Arab settlements in Sindh and Multan made Islam a part and parcel of Indian religious life, though confined to a part of the country only, to begin with.
  • Between AD 757 and 774, during the reign of Khalifa Mansur, some Hindu scholars visited Baghdad and brought with them Brahmagupta’s Brahmasiddhanta and Khandakhadyaka which Al-Fazari translated into Arabic. During the time of Harun many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic and this process continued as long as the Abbasids held control over Baghdad.
  • Indian mathematics and works on astronomy were translated into Arabic and definitely Aryabhatta’s Suryasiddhanta is one of such translated works into Arabic.
  • It is no exaggeration to suggest that Panchatantra was translated into Arabic and formed the basis of Aesop’s fables in the West.
  • A large number of Arab traders settled outside the Muslim occupied territories on the coastal region from Sindh to Gujarat and Kathiawar.
  • Indian traders and merchants continued to explore the markets of Iraq and Iran while Indian physicians and master craftsmen were welcomed by the Khalifa at Baghdad.
  • The Arabs employed Indian Architects and adopted Indian architectural concepts while constructing their residences, public buildings and magnificent mosques.
  • Politically the Arab conquest of Sindh paved the way for the later day Turkish conquest of India.
  • On the whole, the relations were neither very hostile nor very cordial between the Arabs and the Indians.

 

4.  The Ghaznavid Turks :

 

After the Arab penetration into Sindh, it was the Turks who once again made inroads into India in 11th Century. The credit of establishing the Muslim rule in India goes to the Turks. By the end of the 9th century, the Abbasid Caliphate declined and followed by Samanid dynasty. The leadership of Islam was also captured from the Arabs first by the Persians and then by the Turks. Meanwhile the Turkish governors established independent kingdoms and Khalifa became only a ritual authority.

 

Alptigin, a Trukish Slave of the Samanid king Amir-Abu-Bakr Lawik founded the Ghaznivid dynasty in 963. He occupied the kingdom of Jabul, with its capital Ghazni. He was followed by his son-in-law, Subuktigin, a capable and ambitious ruler. He succeeded in capturing all the territories which lay between Lamghan and Peshawar from the Hindushahi ruler Jayapala. Thus, the Hindushahi kingdom failed to check the growing power of Ghaznavids towards East. But his raids did not produce a lasting effect. Subuktigin was followed by his son Ismail, who was overthrown by Mahmud, his brother in 998. He became famous in history as Mahmud Ghazni.

 

4.1 Mahmud Ghazni :

  • Mahmud of Ghazni established a huge empire in Central Asia, with capital at Ghazni, the present-day South Kabul.
  • Mahmud first consolidated his position in Herat, Balkh and Bust and then conquered Khurasan.
  • Khalifa Al Qadir Billah accepted him as the ruler of these provinces and confirmed on him the titles of Yamin-ud-Daulah and Amin-ud-Millah. It is said that “on the occasion of his investiture by the Khalifa Ghazni took a vow to organize every year a raid into India“.
  • Mahmud justified his accession, became a powerful ruler, repeatedly attacked India and paved the way of the conquest of India by Islam.

 

4.2 Condition of India on the eve of Mahmud Ghazni invasion :

 

On the eve of invasion North India was divided into a number of independent states.

  • There were two Arab kingdoms in Sindh, one at Multan and other at Mansurah.
  • On the frontier of India, there existed the Hindushahi kingdom which extended from the Punjab to Kabul. Its capital was Waihind. Jayapala and his son Anandapala were the prominent rulers.
  • Kashmir was an independent state ruled over by the Lohara dynasty and it had family relations with the Hindushahis.
  • Kanuaj was ruled over by Rajyapala, the Gurjara Pratihara king.
  • There were independent kingdoms dynasty), Malwa (Paramara dynasty) in Bengal (Pala dynasty),Gujarat (Solanki and Bundhelkhand ( Chandella dynasty) as well.
  • In the south the later Chalukyas and Cholas have their powerful kingdoms.

 

4.3 Mahmud Ghazni invasions :

 

In pursuance of his vow he invaded India many times and as to the actual number of his inroads historians differ. According to Sir Henry Elliot Mahmud made seventeen expeditions against India. Modern historians accept the view of Sir Elliot. His seventeen raids into India made during the period between 1000 and 1027 CE, is a significant event in the history. Various reasons have been given by historians who resulted in repeated attacks by Mahmud on India. Mahmud’s invasion of India was purely religious and economic and not political.

  • Mahmud Ghaznis first invasion took place in 1000 CE captured some frontier forts in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
  • In 1004, Mahmud attacked on Bhatia, defeated its ruler Baji Ray and Plundered vast territories.
  • In 1006, he attacked on Shia kingdom of Multan, imprisoned its ruler Fath Daud and annexed. It was during the invasion Anandapala attacked him. Mahmud appointed Sukhapala (Nawasa Shah), the grandson of Jayapala as its governor made him to embrace Islam. Later Daud and Nawasa Shah, revolted in his absence and therefore, he came to India again in 1007, defeated and killed Nawasa Shah and annexed all the territories including Multan.
  • In the next expedition (1009) was directed against Anandapala, for having helped Fath Daud. The Hindu confederacy organized by Anandapala was utterly defeated by Mahmud in the battle of Waihind. Anandapala shifted his capital to Nandana and tried to buildup his lost strength but failed.
  • The subsequent expedition were directed against Narayanapur, Nagarkot and plundered its wealth.
  • In the 11th expedition 1013 led his campaign against Nandana and occupied it. The Hindushahi kingdom now reduced to the status of small Jagir.
  • In 1014 he attacked Thaneswar, defeated Rama, the chief of Dera, and destroyed the Chakraswami Temple.
  • In 1018 Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura and also attacked Kanuaj. The ruler of Kanuaj, Rajyapala abandoned Kanuaj and later died. Mahmud returned via Kalinjar with fabulous richest.
  • In 1019 and 1029 he undertook two raids on Gangetic valley.
  • In 1025 he attacked on Somanath, the famous holy town on the coast of Kathiawar. It was a beautiful temple and possessed enormous wealth. In this expedition he preceded through Multan defeated Bhimadeva of Anhilwad and reached Somanath Temple. The Hindus fought very bravely and initially the enemies could not damage the temple. However, after 3 days of fights, Mahmud Ghazni’s troops were successful in plundering the Somanath temple, in which the sacred idol, Linga was destroyed. Ghazni looted all the treasures of the temple, which was at that time worth 20-million Dinars, more than eighty times of what he had collected in his first invasion.
  • Mahmud came back to India for the last time in 1027 to punish the Jats who had troubled him on his return journey from Somanath. The Jats were severely punished, looted property, enslaved their women and children.

 

Thus, Mahmud Ghazni successfully attempted seventeen invasions on Indian Territories and died in 1030 CE.

 

4.4 Estimate:

 

Mahmud was a courageous soldier and a successful commander. Undoubtedly, he was a bold and brave warrior and a born leader of men who single-handedly carved out one of the biggest empires in west and central Asia.

 

He built a wide empire from the Punjab in the east to the Caspian Sea on the west and from Samarkand in the north to Gujarat in the south. The Ghaznavid empire roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.

 

His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in India. He paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper incursions into the Gangetic valley at any time. He drained the resources of India by his repeated raids and deprived India of her manpower.

 

Mahmud was considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians. Looting of holy places in Thaneswar, Mathura and the loss of thousands of people defending Somanath temple and destruction of the Shiva Linga with his own hands made the Hindus hate him as a fanatic Muslim. It is difficult to explain the motive for these wanton destructions, when he never wanted to establish his empire in India. Even if we agree that he looted the wealth of India to enrich his power base in central Asia, the question that defies explanation is his wanton destruction of temples. He was greatly honoured by the Khalifa for his successful feats in India.

 

He also patronized art and literature. Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni, the scholar of Turki, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Philosophy, Astrology and history stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account on India.

 

Mahmud established a university, a good library, and a museum at Ghazni. He also patronized artist. He adorned Ghazni with fine buildings and Mosques. During his rule, Ghazni became not only a beautiful city of east but also the centre of Islamic scholarship, fine arts and culture.

 

5. Muhammad Ghori

 

The next important Muslim ruler who had made his influence in Indian History know was Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Mahmud of Ghazni, for nearly hundred and fifty years there was no Turkish invasion on India. Towards the close of 12th Century another Turkish tribe rose to prominence in the north west of Afghanistan and established Ghurid kingdom based at Ghor. Ghor was a central Asian principality lay in between Ghazni and Herat. The Ghurids were vassals of Ghazni and taking advantage of weakness of Mohammad Ghazni’s successors, Alauddin Hussain of Ghor destroyed their power. In 1163 Ghiasuddin became the ruler of Ghor. He sent his brother Sahabuddin alias Muiz-Uddin-Muhammad to conquer Ghazni. He successfully the conquered Ghanzi 1173 and was appointed as its Governor. This Sahabuddin is well known in the History of India as Muhammad Ghori. It is Muhammad Ghori, who once again initiated invasions into the Indian soil to expand his territory and also laid foundations for Muslim rule in India.

 

5.1 The causes of Muhammad Ghori Invasions

  • Muhammad was an ambitious, greedy aggressive ruler. Like all great rulers of the age he wanted to expand his empire for power and glory.
  • The royal families of Ghur and Ghazni were hereditary enemies and by that time, the Ghaznavids still ruled in the Punjab. Muhammad wanted to recover Sindh and Punjab in India, so that he could finish remaining strength of Ghanvavids.
  • The rising power of the Khwarizmi Empire severely limited the Central Asian ambitions of the Ghurids. Khurasan, which was the bone of contention between the two, after being conquered by the Khwarizmi Shah left no option for the Ghurids but to look for expansion towards India.
  • Muhammad also desired to acquire wealth from India and also to extend the sway of Islam.

 

5.2 Political condition of India on the eve of Ghori Invasion

 

Nearly 150 Years had lapsed after the last invasion of Mahmud in 1027. Unfortunately, Indian did not learn any useful political lesson from Ghaznis rides and they failed to develop foresight necessary to meet the new challenge. There was not a single remarkable change in the condition of India expect changes in ruling dynasties and territories. Politically India was divided into many kingdoms both in North and South. The North India witnessed the rule of many Rajput princes. The chief among them were a) Prithviraj Chauhan was ruling over Delhi and Ajmer b) Jayachandra was the ruler of Kanuaj c) the Solanki king Mularaja II was ruling over Gujarat d) the Sena king Lakshmanasena was ruling over Bengal etc., They indulged in constant internecine warfare which ultimately weakened all the Rajaput states.

 

5.3 Invasions

  • Muhammad Ghori’s first invasions were on the Multan and fortress of Uch, with a view to bring back the Muslim states of India and conquered it easily in 1175.
  • In 1178, he attacked on Anhilwara in Gujarat,but was defeated by its king Mularaja II.
  • Soon Muhammad realised that the right way to enter Hindustan was through Punjab. Muhammad conquered Peshwar in 1179 and Sialkot in 1185. Finally, he marched against Lahore defeated its ruler Kushrau Shah. Thus, he conquered Sindh and Punjab, ultimately ended the Ghaznavid empire.

 

5.3.1 First Battle of Tarain or Thaneswar 1191

 

The annexation of Punjab, the boundaries of the kingdom of Muhammad and Prithviraj, the Chauhan ruler of Delhi and Ajmer touched each other. In 1191 Muhammad attacked and captured Bhatinda, a part of Prithviraj dominion. This led Muhammad to come into direct clash with Prithviraj Chauhan one of the most powerful Rajput rulers. The enemies met each other in the battle field at Tarain, 80 miles from Delhi. This was known as first battle of Tarain. Muhammad Ghori was defeated in the battle and also wounded in the arm. The Muslim army was routed and battle was completely won over by the Rajputs.

 

5.3.2 Second Battle of Tarain 1192

 

Muhammad was not dishearten and prepared his army for the next attack to avenge his defeat with much strategy and power. Prithviraj also organized Hindu confederacy to resist to Muhammad. In 1192 both the armies met again in the same battle field Tarain. This time Muhammad defeated Prithviraj and killed.

 

The second battle of Tarain is well known as one of the turning points in Indian history. The battle opened the way for further conquests of India by the Muslims. Ajmer and Delhi were occupied by Muhammad.

 

After the battle of Tarain, Muhammad appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, one of his slaves, as the Viceroy of the Indian provinces. He consolidated the Indian conquests of his master, conquered Meerut, Bulandhahar, Aligarh etc. made Delhi as the capital in 1193.

 

5.3.3 Battle of Chandawar 1194

 

In 1194 Muhammad Ghori led another expedition against Jayachandra of Kanuaj. The battle between Muhammad and Jayachandra took place near Chandawar on the river Yamuna between Eatwah and Kanuaj. King Jayachandra was defeated and killed in the battle. According R.S. Sharma “the fall of Jayachandra made Muhammad Ghor the master of political as well as religious capitals of Hindusthan – Kanuaj and Banaras”.

 

5.3.4 Other conquests

 

After successful campaigns Muhammad rested the responsibility of consolidating the conquests in India on his Governor Qutubuddin Aibak. Aibak as viceroy extended the influence of Muhammad over many Rajput states of Gwalior, Ajmer, Anhilwara, Badaun, Banaras, Bundhelkhand and Kalinger.

 

Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, a general of Ghori, led a daring military expedition against Bihar and Bengal. In between 1202 – 1205 he attacked Odantapuri and plundered Buddhist Monastery, destroyed the university of Nalanda and Vikramasila and defeated Lakshamansena of Bengal.

 

Muhammad Ghori conquered India but did not declare himself as Independent King of India and remained a loyal brother to Ghiyasuddin. He became ruler of vast empire in 1202 after the death of his brother Ghiasuddin and ruled west Asia as well as India until his assassination in 1206. Muhammad came back to India in 1205 and fought a battle against Khokars. After defeating Khokars Muhammad Ghori immediately rushed back to Ghazni, but he was not fated to reach his homeland alive. He was assassinated by the Khokars on the bank of rivers Indus in 1206, while engaging his evening prayers.

  1. Summary :

 

Muhammad Ghazni opened the gate for the Turkish conquests in India, but the task of consolidation was done by Muhammad Ghori. Muhammad was one of the most remarkable figures of medieval history. He was a man of vision, almost all historians have praised him for his qualities of head and heart. Muhammad Ghori rose from smaller beginnings than Mahmud Ghazni, but he carried arms further and left indisputable footprints in India. His greatest achievement was the establishment of Turkish empire in India which added a fresh chapter to the Indian history. With his death the central Asian empire was broken into pieces. Qutubuddin Aibak, one of the slaves of Muhammad Ghori became the master of his Indian provinces and laid foundation for Delhi Sultanate in 1206.

you can view video on Muslim invasions on India (Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor)

Web links

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuhammCE._bin_Qasim
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni
  • http://historypak.com/muhammCE.-bin-qasim/
  • http://www.mapsofindia.com/history/battles/arab-invasion-of-sind-under-mohammed-binqasim.html
  • http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/arab-invasion-and-their-initial-failure-in-sindh-kabuland-zabul/
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuhammCE._of_Ghor
  • http://www.mapsofindia.com/history/battles/mahmud-ghazni-invasions-of-india.html
  • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuFeZuwdrlU
  • https://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-sindh/
  • http://www.indiaonline.in/about/Profile/History/Wars/Battle-of-Tarain.html