2 Introduction to the paper

Prof. Sumita Parmar

 

Introduction to the paper

 

This paper has been conceived to convey how the intersections of region, caste, class and religion combined with other factors, emerge with different faces and manifestations of the exploitation and abuse of women in different parts of the country. There are many worlds co-existing in India simultaneously- multi-religious, multicultural, and multi-ethnic, extravagantly rich and unimaginably poor, liberal and orthodox. Sometimes the differences in these parallels worlds are small, but often they are stark and extreme. The diversity in the country is rich and varied and makes the composite culture vibrant and multidimensional. However these diversities also play out in negative ways causing clashes, disruptions, frissures and fragmentations in the social structure.

 

Gender is the overriding perspective of the paper and the different modules have been clubbed together in units each one with a different focus. In India, cultural practices vary vastly across different communities. Yet, in most cultures the inferior position of women is a given and an array of customs and traditions ensure the control of women’s sexuality and effectively, their lives. Thus the first Unit, Unit-1, provides an overview of the entire country. Seven modules cover different topics, such as the many government initiatives and interventions that have been undertaken over the years to improve the status of women and girls, the disparity of Gender evident in the continuously declining female ratio in the population of the country in the last few decades, women in the field of sports and women and entrepreneurship.

 

Unit-1

 

Module-2 & 3

 

On paper, the Indian woman is indeed an empowered person. There are several Laws and Acts that have been made to offer special protection to her. To mention only some, The Constitution of India guarantees in Article 14, & 16 , the Right to Equality, Article 21, the Right to life, Article 15 , the Right to Equality and equal protection before the law, Article 42, Maternity Relief. A very special Article, Article 15 (3) Provides for discrimination in favour of women) and Article 51(A) (e)]. renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women. Not only these, there are several other Laws related to the right to property, to crimes against women, to the rights of working women and against Sexual Harassment laws.

 

Besides these, the Ministry has 6 autonomous organizations that focus on different aspects of the lives of women and girls. In fact each decade has seen the introduction of new schemes targeting women and girls. For example in the decade of the nineties, the following schemes were launched.

 

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) or National Credit Fund for Women was established by the Government of India in March, 1993 under the Societies Registration Act 1860 to act as an apex micro credit organization of the Government to give micro-loans to the poor women in the unorganized sector for their socio-economic development

  • The Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY)in 1995-96 was the first Self Help Group based women’s empowerment programme of the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
  • Balika Samriddhi Yojana in 1997 to help in raising the overall status of the girl child and bring about a positive change in family and community attitudes,
  • Protection of girl child: Legal action to stop female foeticide dates back to the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Technique (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse Act, 1994) which had been enacted in an attempt to reduce the imbalance in sex ratio.

 

In 1993, the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.

 

The number of Laws and schemes for the benefit of Women and Girls begs the question as to what their actual status is. It is obvious that these alone will not suffice. Logically, if the many laws and schemes are taken into consideration, the position of women should be very high but the declining CSR tells another story. The modules critique the schemes/Programmes and analyze the causes responsible for the continuous deterioration in the position of and increase in sexual violence against women.

 

Module-4

 

Although there has been a marked increase in the participation of girls and women in sports, the country lags woefully behind the developed nations, in terms of the facilities given, the lack of encouragement, lack of good coaches and the preferential treatment given to the men. The budget allocations for the
development and expansion of sports participation at the schools, colleges and university levels is insufficient and needs to be improved. Politics and casteism too play a role when they should have nothing to do with this area. All this and more has been covered in the module on Women and Sports.

 

Modules 5 & 6

 

Two modules have been done on the very crucial topic of the Changing Child Sex. (CSR) The module are accompanied by detailed maps that show the changing trends. The picture that emerges is alarming and drives home the fact that son preference in the country has caused the death of thousands of girls.The reasons for this are culturally embedded and unless the problem is addressed on a war footing, it is likely to become bigger. The initiation of Government schemes both at the Central and the State levels in different states suggest that it is aware of this problem. However, a multi-pronged effort involving civil society, the media and the Government will have to be made before any changes in the mindsets of people begin to take place.

 

Module-7

 

Initiatives that are being taken in the world of business and start up ventures is discussed in the last module on Women & Entreprenuership vis a vis women in Unit-1. Thus the Unit endeavors to give a bird’s eye view of certain aspects of women’s empowerment in the country.

 

Unit-2

 

The second Unit of the paper examines the multiple manifestations of violence against women and girls in different parts of the country. What lies at the core of these expressions are deep prejudices and antagonism embedded in the attitudes of people where they have been nurtured through patriarchal norms and agencies like religion, literature and social norms for centuries. Paradoxically women themselves are complicit in the implementations of many of these practices, socialized as they are by the very norms that disempower them. At other times they are powerless to speak and suffer in silence the exploitation and abuse that happens to them. India perhaps has the longest history of assisted suicides, Ichha-Marana and Jauhar systems were essentially “self-immolation” mechanisms.

 

Module-8

 

Assam and the North East have a long history of witch hunting and practising witchcraft or black magic dates back hundreds of years. Mayong was once known as the Indian Capital of Black Magic

 

Study reveals that a practice like witch hunting has its roots among marginalized communities, deprived of development. Poor, illiterate people living in remote areas live a life greatly influenced by superstitions.Economic disparity and neglect of health care as well as absence of health care infrastructure.Is one of the root causes of witch hunting.The worship of demons, witches, ghosts among the tribal people is common. They also have are believers tremendous faith in the ‘Bez’ or ‘Kaviraj’ Poor people always blame their stars or fate for their poverty and d epend on the blessings of numerous gods and goddesses for betterment in their lives.

 

Sometimes there are cases of killing of women, which are found to be acts of the Land Mafia. It has been found that all these cases are not incidents of witch hunting, rather they are acts committed with long- term planning by land mafia to grab land and property. Another form of cruelty to women is to label them witches.Women, it has been found, are often labeled witches when they own land and after the death of their husbands, the male members of the family want to usurp their property. Once they have been branded with the label of witch, all other actions are excused This becomes a convenient way of achieving their purpose since it comes with social sanction.

 

During the last few years many ‘witches’ have been beheaded and buried in the villages in at least 12 of the 27 districts of Assam. more than 500 people have been killed, and 116 official cases of witch killing have been registered since 2011 in the state . prevalent mostly in Bodo areas, with the passage of time, it has spread to other districts,including Kamrup, Nalbari, Sivasagar, Jorhat, Lakhimpur, Nawgaon, Bongaigaon, Dhemaji, Karbi and Anglong districts. This practice or belief is prevalent in other states of India also. Cases have been reported from Jharkhand and Rajasthan also.

 

Module-9

 

The module on sati interrogates the practice and traces its history.The practice of Sati or self immolation by Hindu widows has a chronicled past, as old as the history of gender-based subjugation in social relations. Sanctioned by religious texts and glorified by patriarchy, it is an incredible fact that sati still happens in India in our modern times.The following lines are indicative of the approval that society gave to the practice.

 

“Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with ghee (corrylium). Let these wives first step into the pyre, tearless, without any affliction and well adorned”.

 

“It is the highest duty of the woman to immolate herself after her husband” (Brahmapurana 80.75

 

The practice of Sati is not peculiar to one region of the country; we find evidence across the spectrum from ancient to contemporary Hindu society. But, cases from Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Uttar Pradesh have been reported in the 21st century with almost 30 cases of Sati from the in Rajput/Shekhavati region alone.

 

The much publicised sati or rather the ceremonial murder of Roop Kanwar (1987) brought the issue into the limelight. In its socio-cultural and historical context, it is important to understand the connection between Sati and other gruesome forms of structural violence like female-foeticide, bride-burning, demand for virgins, gendered concept of disgraced entity, honour killing, dowry death, rape, witch-hunting.

 

Although culturally embedded, ‘Widow-burning’ could not just be abolished overnight. Historically, efforts to prevent Sati by formal means had been made even before the Mughal rulers came to power.Albuquirk, Jahangir, Aurangzeb, Akbar, Lord William Bentinck etc. all tried to put a stop to the practice. By the end of the 18th Century, the practice had been banned in territories held by some European powers. The Portuguese banned the practice in Goa by about 1565. The Dutch and the French banned it in Pondichery, their respective colonies. The first formal British ban was imposed in 1798, in the city of Calcutta only. William Carey & Wilferforce were the champion of this campaign. During the period of Indian renaissance , ideas of liberty, equality and justice had a tremendous impact on Indian society and customs, traditions, beliefs, values, ideals which were not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or values but still being followed in the name of religionwere criticized. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati, Mahadev Govind Ranade and many others. In independent India, barbarous practice of Sati was legally prohibited. Following the outcry after the Sati of Roop Kanwar, the Indian government enacted the Rajasthan Sati Prevention Ordinance 1987 on October 1, 1987.

 

Module-10

 

Studies reveal the close connection between honour killings and the Khap panchayats. In earlier times Khaps were actually more liberal and forward looking and worked to maintain harmony in the village, but in recent times thay have assumed a sinister role. An important factor for the continuance of the Khaps is that they are the poor man’s court giving quick “justice’ without him having to resort to the judicial system which is both expensive and time consuming.There is only one women’s wing among all of the khaps of Haryana, the one in Hissar headed by Sudesh Chaudhary who is in her mid-forties now. Her Khap had issued a diktat that those participating in honour killings, female foeticide and rape would be ostracised. Although they have been banned, they continue to weild immense power and no one has the courage to challenge them, partially because of fear of life and partially because of fear of social boycott.

 

Module-11

 

Honour Killings or ‘crimes of honour’ as they are called are a particularly brutal manifestation of the concept of ‘honour’ the protection and shouldering of which lies on the shoulders of the woman. This ‘Honour” could be related to caste, community, village or religion and the so called ‘shaming’ or ‘dishonouring’ of the family can only be countered by the death of the girl or woman who brought it on.Thus this is a crime that is often committed by the members of the family within the family.The name itself is a misnomer, since there is no honour whatsoever in this kind of action. In fact The UN has also opposed this terminology for the reason that the term ‘risks reinforcing discriminatory misconceptions that males embody the ‘honour’ of the family and the community’.

 

Given the nature of the crime, it is no surprise that the practice is prevalent in many parts of the world like- Egypt, Jordan, Pakistan, Turkey, the Middle East, Mediterranean and Persian Gulf countries, France, Germany and U.K, as well as Bangladesh, Brazil, Ecuador, Israel, Italy, Sweden and Uganda, North America, Canada and Latin America..

 

In India, it is estimated that there are 1000 honour killings every year; the phenomenon being most prevalent in the Western and North Western parts of India, viz. Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Western U.P., as well as in M.P., Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.

 

Modules12 & 13

 

Another form of extreme violence that has emerged in the country are acid attacks on women.The act of Acid thrown on the victim’s face and body with intent to disfigure have shown an alarming growth in India over the last decade. Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids, often used as cleaning products, are also cheap and accessible weapons. These highly corrosive substances rapidly dissolve skin tissues, fat and muscle when they come into contact with the body. Within seconds of and acid attack, the physical effects are already permanent and severe In many cases, victims suffer a slow and painful death. Burns covering more than 50 percent of the total body surface area are almost always fatal. In cases of survival, the various aspects of treatment a victim is likely to require, include emergency treatment, medicines and supplies, physiotherapy, and surgery . . Based on the past cases, the cost of surgery over a lifetime can be estimated at anywhere between Rs. 3 to 50 lakhs.

 

While these attacks can be attributed to various factors such as the socially weak position of women and the existence of a male-dominated society, the matter suffers due to the general neglect on the behalf of lawmakers with respect to acid attacks. In addition to this, the offence has been made bailable in certain situations, and thus the punishment does not act as a sufficient deterrent in most cases.

 

One of the most agonizing impacts of an acid attack is the economic ramification on the survivors. Economic impacts include loss of financial support from the survivor’s family and community, inability to work or loss of earning potential, extreme difficulty in finding employment due to negative responses to the survivor’s disfigurement, and the effect of social stigma. As a result, survivors “become dependent on others for food and money.” For survivors without a consistent source of such support, the result is a life of destitution and a struggle to survive.

 

An appreciation of the interconnected nature of physical, psychological, social, and economic consequences is vital to secure justice for survivors. Every aspect of rehabilitation must be addressed in order to secure justice for acid attack survivors. It is recommended that the courts conceptualise the aftermath of acid violence as an interconnected web of medical, psychological, social and economic consequences, which requires a holistic and equally interconnected course of treatment. Justice cannot be served until all the consequences of acid violence have been acknowledge and redressed.

 

It is imperative that this vicious crime be punished severely and promptly so that the perpetrators know that they will not be able to go scot free.The module deals with the subject covering the legal aspects as well.

 

Module-14

 

The last module in this Unit addresses the problem of the devdasi in the southern part of the country. Who are the Devadasis, the worshippers of Goddess Yellamma?They are women traditionally dedicated to Goddess Yellamma or Renuka, mainly from Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Devadasi cult has transformed into a thriving business centering round the mortal bodies of the Devadasi and is prevalent in different forms throughout India, to this day. It is seen to a large extent in the districts of Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur and Gulbarga in North Karnataka. According to the National Commission of Women, over 2.5 lakh girls, most of whom belong to the Dalit communities, are dedicated to Yellama and Kondabba temples in the Maharashtra-Karnataka border.Many devadasis end up with sexually transmitted diseases, which are not treated because of poverty. Many also end up with AIDS and die.

 

The cult of “Devadasi” or dedicating girls to Godess Yellama dates back to the period of the Puranas, from the 6th century A.D. The rise of “sacred prostitutes” happened during the rule of the Pallava and Chola dynasties in South India and the practice had become established by the 13th century. By then the majority of the devadasis in temples had become the targets of the pleasure seekers among the Brahmins and the Kings.The conflict between them was resolved by an understanding and devadasis were branded on their chests with emblems of ‘garuda’ (eagle) and ‘chakra’ (discus) for kings and ‘shankha’ (conch) for Brahmins.

 

Many poor low caste women are sexually exploited through this system. Soon after the initiation, the devadasi begins to lead a life of a cheap prostitute either at a nearby brothel or a city brothel. By the time she grows old, her market value goes down because of younger entrants. Then she is thrown out of business and is of no use to anyone anymore. Devadasi cult is, in contemporary times, is an evil system where many poor dalit and backward caste women are exploited in the name of religion.

 

The module covers the complex socio-economic dimensions of this Cult, its contribution to the arts, its relationship with religious beliefs, local superstitions or blind faith, as well as some of the myths surrounding the Mother Goddess Yellemma, who is the main female deity to whom the girls are offered as Devadasis.

 

Unit-3

 

Unit Three of the paper is dedicated to remarkable women who have made crucial contributions to the composite life of people in the country and particularly to the lives of women. With their outstanding contributions these pioneering contemporary women have impacted society forcing it to pay heed to issues that frequently fall outside the comfort zones of the powers that be.An academic, a politician, an artist , an entrepreneur and two social activists have been carefully selected to give an approximate representation to different sections of society. One module has been dedicated to the tribal women of the country.

 

Module-15

 

The birth of the discipline of Women’s Studies is an outcome of efforts by women and men who not only worked as social activists and reformers but also tried to change the mindsets of people by educating them. In India, the credit for establishing Women’s Studies as an independent discipline in Indian Universities, Colleges and Institutions goes to many special and dedicated people. The present module is on one such extraordinary person, Vina Majumdar. Popularly known as “Vinadi”, she was also known by various other titles such as ‘a woman activist’, ‘a feminist’, ‘a trouble maker’, and a ‘gender specialist’, but the title she liked most was ‘recorder and chronicler of the Indian women’s Movement’ and the ‘grandmother of Women’s Studies in South Asia’.The passion, integrity and commitment with which she worked on the establishment of Women’s Studies as a subject is both exemplary and inspiring. She was Member Secretary for the Committee on the Status of Women in India (1971–74).The report of the Committee, Towards Equality, highlighted the rise in poverty amongst women in the transition from agrarian to industrial society, their deteriorating condition in the country as also the decline of the sex ratio in India. Eventually, the report became a turning point both for Women’s Studies and the women’s movement in India.

 

Later she became Director, Programme of Women’s Studies, Indian Council of Social Science Research from 1975 to 80. The module on her is a brief account of her life and achievements

 

Module-16

 

A modest self-effacing personality but with a steely resolve to fight for the rights of women and the toiling people of India, Geeta Mukherjee, CPI, M.P. from Panskura, West Bengal, remained active till the last day of her life. She was a member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly from 1967 to 1977, winning the Panskura Purba Assembly seat 4 times in a row. She was elected a Member of Parliament for 7 terms, and remained active in parliamentary struggles for a period of 33 long years. Though she was a staunch Communist, she was admired and revered by all, even cutting across Party lines. No one could point a finger at her as she discharged her duties in the West Bengal Assembly and the Parliament of India as an honest, committed and modest peoples’ representative. Geeta Mukherjee’s role in the drafting of the Women’s Reservation Bill and her inputs in the Joint Select Committee of Parliament were exemplary. In fact she was the main architect of the Bill. She was also an active campaigner for the Bill and had resolved to get it passed in her lifetime. But, unfortunately, that was not to be. Yet, the day her dream is fulfilled will be a turning point in the history of the Women’s Movement.

 

Module-17

 

Zohra Segal was a dancer, choreographer, an actor and connoisseur of art all rolled into one. A remarkable woman of courage and grace, indomitable and with a multifaceted personality, it was not just by chance that she lived up to the ripe old age of 102-her spirit was indefatigable and she enjoyed life with all its vibrancy and colour. How did she approach her work? ”With a great sense of joy. It’s my life. It’s what I like doing best in the world,” she would say. Zohra was an iconoclast and she had the courage to laugh even at herself. The pupil of Pandit Udayshankar in dance and of Prithviraj Kapoor in the field of acting, she was a self-made woman who had reached the top through her dedication to the Arts. The module dedicated to her, describing the life and work of this great woman is a tribute to the great dancer-actor-choreographer whose career spanned more than six decades.

 

Module-18

 

Ela Bhatt, who was born in the year 1933 in Ahmadabad, Gujarat, the second of three daughters, Ela Bhatt grew up in a well established family of Gujarat whose members were always interested in social causes. Her girlhood was spent in Surat, an export center on the coast about 100 miles from Ahmedabad . While doing her graduation from Gujarat University, Ela volunteered to work on the 1951 census. This project made a deep impression on her as she came to know about poverty in India. After the first hand exposure she got to the lives of poor people and the multiple exploitations of women, she decided to devote her life to working for them. The most outstanding contribution of Ela Bhatt has been in the field of organization women into collectives and understanding the power of collective voices and their impact whether in terms of asking for better working conditions, or fair wages or better working conditions. Ela was the founder General Secretary, of SEWA where she worked for the women who were not employed in an organized way, but were self employed.

 

 

Module-19

 

Irom Chanu Sharmila, popularly called Irom Sharmila, was born on 14 March, 1972 in Kongpal, Imphal in Manipur, one of the Seven States of the North East.

 

She belongs to the Meitei Tribe. Irom is a Civil Rights and Political activist and is known as ‘the Iron lady of Manipur’. She is also lovingly called Mengoubi (the fair one) in her state. Irom has been on a hunger strike against the draconian Armed Forces Special Powers Act 1958 since 5th November 2002 and has become the ‘longest hunger striker in world history’ till date. The entire North East region has been facing State Repression, insurgency and intra-tribal warfare since a long time, and Irom grew up in this atmosphere of violence and insecurity.This module describes this outstanding woman who has been waging a battle against the state for the last fourteen years!

 

Module-20

 

Medha Patkar’s involvement with the displaced people of the Dam of the Narmada River Project have made her a household name in the country.Born to parents who were social activists, she comes from a family with a background of struggle and activism. She grew up to be highly motivated, exceptionally brave and always ready to speak out for a social cause. Her ideological orientation, which was embedded in values of equity, justice and democratic socialism, came through attending various rural vacation camps and participating in social activities of youth organizations. While studying for her Ph.D. and doing research on social inequality and social movements, she came to know about a judgement of a tribunal granting permission to build 30 Mega dams, 135 medium-sized and 3000 small dams. She become deeply involved with issues of displaced people in the Narmada River Valley, which spans the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. She made her debut visit to Gujarat, and got a first-hand account of the plight of the tribals living in the north-eastern region of the State. She began to work with groups of Adivasi (Tribal) youth in the districts of Dang, Sabarkantha and Banaskantha as well as among farmers in the Narmada Valley. Later she abandoned her doctoral research, and plunged into the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

 

Tribal women of India come with their own set of problems related to issues of land , livelihood and gender. The Module provides insights into the social and economical background of the tribes of India with a special focus on the women.

 

Unit-4

 

Just like the diversity, the manifestations of the situations that women find themselves in, also varies hugely. The intersections of regional problems with the all pervasive patriarchal attiudes regarding gender in the country find a variety of manifestations in different parts of the country. Unit Four of the paper casts its eye on selected areas of the country where because of specific situations, women have had a specially raw deal.

 

Module-22

 

The first Module in this Unit looks at Insurgency, State Repression and Women in Assam.The position of women in the contexts of conflicts in Assam is best assessed in terms of the numerous insurgencies that have historically mushroomed in the Northeast of India. These insurgencies in different historical phases had different characters but since the 1980s armed insurgency groups emerged with

 

greater prominence among the Bodos after the autonomy movement under AASU and later as the AGP came to power. Women have played a significant role in these movements to carve out a space for themselves in the movements for self-determination and autonomy but at the same time they have been victims at the receiving end of violence both by the militant groups as well as the security forces indulging in transgressions.

 

Module-23

 

The horrific death of Tapasi Malik, a 19 years old woman from Bajemelia village, Singur region of Hooghli district in West Bengal sends shivers of resonance as it echoes the violence perpetrated on women involved with political agitations.

 

Tapasi was part of the people agitating against the land takeover. She was raped and burnt to death on the night of 18 December, 2006, her charred body found in a pit inside the land fenced off for the Indian corporate giant Tata Motors’ small-car project, near her village-home. The pledge of peasant women in Singur to defend their land even at the cost of their lives marks an emotional commitment – a sense of collective belonging and solidarity forged through an affective relationship with land The module presents the complexities and intersections with gender equity that constitute the Nandigram story.

 

Module-24

 

Manipur, in north-east India, has been marked by sharp political conflict and turmoil, over the past few decades. At the same time, it is known for an exceptionally rich culture, world-class theatre, sports, dance and literature.The people of Manipur struggled against colonial rule and, later, engaged in movements for justice vis-à-vis the Indian state. Over the centuries, people of valley and hills have interacted and depended on each other for their needs, their relations at times turbulent and other times peaceful. The last few decades have also witnessed rise in ethnic conflicts. The women of Manipur have held a central position in management of household, agriculture and trade. They play a prominent role in public protest, individually and in the collective. The Module on Manipur describes the fight of the women against AFSPA.

 

Module-25

 

The question of caste looms large on the Uttar Pradesh horizon. By understanding caste and gender dynamics, a true comprehension of key social relations and social inequalities, faced by women in India emerges. This analytical lens highlights how women become instruments through which the social system replicates itself and systemic inequality is maintained: how they are denied opportunities, choices and freedoms at multiple levels, that undermine not only their dignity and self-respect, but also their right to development.

 

In the recent past, there is an evident rise of assertion of Dalit identity that is challenging the centuries-old humiliation faced by them. There has emerged a strong urge among these marginalized groups throughout the country to assert their identity and challenge the cultural hegemony of the upper castes. This is powerfully visible in north India, especially in Uttar Pradesh (UP), lying in the Hindi heartland, which has one of the largest land areas of the country and is also the most populated state.The module examines the caste gender dynamics in UP

 

Module-26

 

Although the Government lays responsibility on the anganwadi workers for this poor performance, they, in turn have a different story to tell. The module suggests ways that the performance of such a significant scheme can improve.

 

Module-27

 

The valley of Kashmir has been called the Switzerland of India although people who have travelled across both Europe and Kashmir find Kashmir’s beauty much more captivating than that of Switzerland or anywhere else. So mesmerized was the Moghul Emperor, Jahangir that he came up with the famous quote “ Agar Firdaus bar ruye zamin ast, hamin asto, hamin asto, hamin ast” ( If there is a Paradise on Earth– it is this, it is this, it is this!). Kashmiris proudly boast of being home to one of the oldest women poets of India, Lalleshwari or Lal Ded (14th century) whose Vakhs, have become a part of the common Kashmiri tongue. The beautiful land of chinars and saffron fields has also produced the singer Habba Khatoon (16th century) whose songs have influenced the popular imagination of the people.

 

It should be noted in the beginning itself that Kashmir was one of the rare states where gender discrimination was rarely evident. Though the roles of men and women were fairly divided on the traditional lines of field and hearth, yet women, especially from the working class, were engaged in commercial activities too. But there were very few cases of violence or atrocities committed against women. The women of Kashmir faced unjust treatment after the political turmoil that occurred post-1947. In the entire political game, the women due to their physical vulnerabilities and low education became tools and soft targets in the hands of both the army as well as the separatist militants. This module address es the situation in Kashmir, giving a socio-historical background for better understanding.

 

Module-28

 

ASHA workers are the backbone of rural healthcare for women and infants. Their tasks include motivating women to give birth in hospitals, bringing children to immunization clinics, encouraging family planning (e.g., surgical sterilization), treating basic illness and injury with first aid, keeping demographic records, and improving village sanitation. ASHAs are also meant to serve as a key communication mechanism between the healthcare system and rural populations. Due to unsatisfactory working conditions, of late they have begun organising as a big force, and have also been participating in agitations in different states for improvement. The module enumerates the various problems that the ASHA workers face.

 

Unit-5

 

It is worth noting that patriarchal oppression has continued to perpetuate social conditions that impact all society. Patriarchal notions about femininity continue to underline definitions of womanhood with images of weakness. Without engaging with the problematics of patriarchal violence the issue of gender equity cannot be resolved.

 

Modules29 & 30

 

The Two Child Norm policy of the Government is part of target oriented, family size control policies adopted by India in 1990’s, which encourages parents to limit the size of their families to two children and creates ineligibilities/denial of entitlements in public policies for couples with more than two children. These ineligibilities and denials are in two areas (a) entitlements under Government’s Welfare Programmes and Schemes and (b) ineligibility for certain elected posts in institutions of governance at different levels. While the denials and disadvantages in eligibility for a government post or to public distribution system commodities etc were created through executive instructions even earlier, the change to the eligibility to elected posts was included in the relevant legislation in the 1990’s starting with the elected representatives of rural and urban local bodies. It is this introduction of the Two Child Norm for the elected representatives that has made it a serious issue even a gender issue The two modules on this topic critique the policy enumerating the fallout and suggest possible directions that can be taken.

 

Modules 31 & 32

 

These two modules address the question of dowry in the country, the different manifestations it takes, how the focus, while always within the ambit of dowry, assumes a variety of faces in different regions of the country. It is important to remember that it all began with the intention of providing women security and confidence and gradually transformed into the monster that it has become in contemporary times. How it is linked to the ostentation of marriages, how the marriage ceremony is more a status statement, an avenue to channel black money, rather than simply a sacrosanct ritual

 

Dowry deaths, the laws connected with the giving and taking of dowry, the current trend of the misuse of the dowry law by unscrupulous people are all covered in the second module on the subject, i.e. Module-32.

 

Module-33

 

This modules critiques the performance of the ICDS in the state of Uttar Pradesh counted among the worst performing states, standing fourth after Bihar, A.P and Daman and Diu, in the area of malnutrition of women and children, in 2013.

 

Conclusion

 

It is hoped that this paper will give the student an idea of the complexity of the gender question, and its myriad manifestations. Just as the face of gender discrimination changes in region and class and caste, so the strategy of countering it also has to change from region to region. Evidence points to the fact that education of women is a strong tool in the fight against exploitation and abuse. But education alone is not enough. It has to be backed by the will of the Government and the desire of society to effect change, Unfortunately, the latter two don’t hold out much hope. Nevertheless, the efforts need to continue .Substantial progess will be made only when the recognition comes that the improvement of the situation of women translates into the betterment of all.

 

WEBLINKS

 

Suggested Readings

  • Marriot, M. and Inden, R.B.(1977) “Toward an Ethnology of South Asian Caste Systems.” In The New Wind’ Changing Identities in SouthAsia. Ed. K. David. The Hague: Mouton
  • Narayan Badri (2006) Wome n Heroes and Dalit Assertion in north India:Culture, Identity and Politics, Sage: New Delhi
  • Nesfield (1885) Brief View of the Caste System of the North West Provinces and Oudh Rig Veda , Purusha Sukta 10.90-12