15 Religion in India

Dhruba Sinha

Introduction

The module intends to scrutinize the major religions that are prevalent in India, the impact of socio-religious movements and the complex connection between religion and politics. India is often described by an old adage; ‘unity in diversity’. The ambitious project of unity decided to use secularism to fight off the diversity created by religious plurality. Therefore, a study of religion will be incomplete without Indian secularism which will bring with it a brief discussion on communalism. It consists of five sections. The first one will deal with definitions of religion and brief descriptions of a few religions that are prevalent in India. It will explore not only the diverse characters of these religions but also the internal diversities. The second section will discuss three different socio-religious movements which took place in different eras. The third section is on secularism which will focus on its emergence, problems related to it and the issue of communalism. The fourth section will view religion from the perspective of women and the last section will summarise and conclude the module.

1.     Religion

Religion has its origin in fear and ignorance; such is believed by many. In the ancient age, when human beings were merely savages and were unable to explain the forces of nature like lightning, rain, wind and fire. In order to appease these formidable forces they started worshipping them. Thus Gods came into existence.

‘Religion’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Religio’ which denotes bonding. Charles A. Ellwood (1938) described religion as the search for truth and especially for eternal values. Herbert Spencer defined religion as “the recognition that all things are manifestations of a Power which transcends our knowledge” (Hick 1987). According to James Martineau, “Religion is the belief in an ever living God.” The problem with defining religion is that these definitions might be able to capture the essence of a few religions while excluding that of the others. For instance, a definion that stresses on the presence of a divine being overlooks the fact that some religions do not acknowledge such a presence (Clothey 2006).

Karl Marx considered religion as solace to those who are distressed. According to him, religion serves the interest of the exploiters by justifying suffering and concealing the actual truth. It creates an ‘illusory happiness’ for the oppressed. Weber on the other hand maintained that religious ideas can have a crucial influence on changing the society. In his work on Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber regarded religion as an impetus behind the development of capitalism. Besides other religions, Weber also studied Hinduism and Buddhism.

In India, religion is referred to as ‘Dharma’. The term originated from the Sanskrit word ‘Dharana’ which means ‘to sustain’. In defining religion in the Indian context, T.N. Madan (2003) stressed on some major features such as the difference of conceptualization between dharma and religion. Dharma, according to him denotes the path of righteousness and steadfastness; while religion indicates complete devotion. He pointed to the fact that, religion in India is inseparable from other domains such as politics. Religion in India according to him is marked by pluralism which is evident not only across the religions but within these religions. Acceptance of religious plurality can also be found in the religious reform movements. M. Mohiuddin (1987) referred to the Bhakti and Sufi movements as ‘cross fertilization’ of Hinduism and Islam. Both of these movements stressed on ‘fundamental equality’ of all religions.

India is called home by people whose religious faith varies to a wide range. According to a 2011 census, majority of the population is Hindu while 13.4% are Muslims, 2.3% are Christians, and 1.9% are Sikhs. A significant number of people have their faith in Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism.

1.1. Hinduism

Clothey (2006) while discussing the religions in India warned against the romanticized portrayals of religions. He cited the example of glorified representation of Hinduism as ‘sanatana manav dharma’ which evolved as a reaction to colonial criticism. According to K. N. Panikkar, what is known as Hinduism today, was actually different sects, cults and deities who came together after the advent of Islam because of social necessities. Hinduism according to him is synonymous with Brahminism, which claims its origin in the Vedas.

All the sacred scriptures of the Hindus belong to Shruti and Smriti. Shruti refers to those which were heard while Smritis are those which were remembered. Shrutis are also known as eternal truths heard by the sages. Vedas are a part of Shruti. There are four Vedas. RigVeda, YajurVeda, SamaVeda and Atharva-Veda. The Rig Veda is considered the earliest one and contains hymns. The Sama Veda consists of hymns in musical notes while Yajur Veda provides guidance for rituals. The Atharva Veda is different in character than the other three and is believed to represent folk religions. Each of these Vedas contains four parts namely Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The other sacred scriptures such as Puranas1, Itihasas2, Darshanas, Dharma- Shastras, Tantras come under Smritis. The other sacred texts such as Grihya Sutras, Dharma Sutras and Shrauta Sutras which came gradually after the Vedas were guidelines for performing domestic religious ceremonies, public rituals and social ethics (Madan 2003).

These ancient texts divided the society into Varnas, namely Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. According to the spiritual texts, these divisions were made on the basis of qualities (Guna3) and acts (Karma). Purity, energy and ignorance specified Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras respectively. Krishna Chaitanya (1986) described these four castes as “the seers and sensitives, the statesmen or administrators of polities; entrepreneurs and technicians; the unspecialised masses”. Max Weber (1958) defined Indian caste system as a ‘closed status group’, as caste was ascribed on a person during birth and no mobility was allowed. He believed that the success of this system lied in the notion of transmigration and the hope of attaining a dignified life in the next incarnation. However, practice of caste system is not as simple as it sounds. T. N. Madan (2003) noted that the ritualistic practices of these castes vary according to the regions.

Based on people’s perception of Supreme Being, Hinduism was also divided into denominations4 (Sampradaya) such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and

   1 Puranas can be referred to as mythologies. There are 18 Puranas. These are divided into three categories after three major Gods; Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara.

2 Itihasas are the most popular sacred texts. Ramayana and Mahabharata come under this category.

3 There are three Gunas. Sattva Guna, rajo Guna and tamo Guna. Sattva Guna or, Sattvik refers to purity, Rajo or, rajasik to energy and Tamo-Guna or, Tamasik to ignorance or, inertia.

4 Shaivites worship Shiva while Vaishnavites are devoted to Vishnu and his other forms. Followers of Shatism see the Supreme Being within female deities such as Kali and Durga.

Smartism. These Sampradayas were further divided into sub-sects. While most of these forms were originated from Vedism, Tantrikas were believed to be non-vedic. Currently, eighty percent of India’s total population belong to Hinduism. While Hinduism along with Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism are considered of Indic origin, Islam came from outside.

1.2. Islam

Muslims are a majority in Jammu and Kashmir, Lakshadeep, Assam and west Bengal. Islam means “the willing and active recognition of and submission to the command of the one, Allah” (Waines 2004). People who follow this path are known as Muslims. Islam is monotheist in nature and the origin of Islam can be traced back to 610 AD in the preaching of Prophet Muhammad. Prophet Muhammad was born in 570 AD in Mecca. He was believed to be the messenger of God. The Quran, the holy book of the Muslims carries the dictation of Prophet Muhammad. Muslims are divided into two sects; Shiahs and Sunnis. The division was created over the conflict regarding the right successor to carry on Prophet Muhammad’s work. The Sunnis who constitute the majority of the Muslim population believe that Abu Bakr, Prophet Muhammad’s father-in-law is the true successor of the Prophet. Shiahs on the other hand follow Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad.

It is believed that Islamic people first arrived on the Indian subcontinent at the beginning of the eighth century though the actual invasion began in the eleventh century. The invaders and their rich culture over a period of hundreds of years were gradually absorbed. According to T.N. Madan (2003), the spreading of Islam happened more through the efforts of Ulama and the Sufis, though incidences of coercive conversion were not absent.

Islam put great emphasis on compassion for others. The Quran asks its followers to spend one-tenth of their income for the welfare of poor, orphans, widows and those who are in need (Engineer 2011). It also asks to cultivate virtues such as mercy, benevolence, compassion and justice. These virtues have been upheld by the Sufi tradition. Sufism advocates asceticism and relys more on morals than rituals. Sufism has been described by Junayd al-Baghdadi, a sufi master, as “self-annihilation in God”. According to Asghar Ali Engineer (1998), Sufis developed the notion of ‘unity of being’, that is, God is one and is the source of all human beings. Therefore, all human beings deserve equal respect. Sufis went on the path of finding the essence of being, which lies beyond what one can perceive normally and they live a life of purity in accordance with God’s demand. Sufis, share belongingness with those people who are weak and suffer from social vices. Compassion is a crucial virtue for Sufis. The stories suggest that their compassion extends not only to human beings but all living beings. In India four traditions of Sufism can be found. These are Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri and Suhrawardi (Madan 2003).

Islam too has its internal hierarchies and practices of inequalities. Shiahs all over the World are considered inferior to Sunnis. This schism is a perennial source of conflict between them. Muslims in India can be divided into three categories namely Ashraf or the noble born, Ajlaf or people born in low castes and Arjal or the excluded (Ahmad 2009). Among Muslims, these divisions are referred as jatis and there are complex subdivisions based on occupation, birth and ritualistic practices. Imtiaz Ahmad noted that people who belong to Arjal community maintain distance from other communities. In some places, they even have separate burial grounds and mosques. Sometimes, though their presence is tolerated in a Mosque, they are forbidden to sit in front of upper castes.

1.3.  Sikhism

Sikhism originated from Sant tradition in the early sixteenth century. It started as a philosophy which later converted into a religion. Guru Nanak is considered the founder of this religion. He was born in 1469 in an upper caste Hindu family. However, he soon realised the futility of idol worshipping, rituals and rites. He showed his followers the way to salvation through the continuous remembrance of the divine being or, the ‘Akal Purakh’. ‘Kirat Karo, Vand Chhako, Naam Japo’ (do labour, share and eat, recite God’s name) (McLeod 1989) was the preaching of Guru Nanak. By rejecting the notion of difference among human beings he emphasized on devotion, effort and morality. He also put emphasis on meditation as a mean to realise the omnipresence of ‘Akal Purakh’ (McLeod 1989). People who followed him were known as Nanak-panthis and afterwards Sikhs. Sikh religion had ten Gurus. After Nanak, there were Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Harkrishan, Guru Teghbahadur and Guru Govind Singh. Guru Granth Sahib is the sacred scripture of Sikhs that holds the essence of this religion.

According to W. H. Mcleod (1989), after Nanak it was necessary to have a successor to protect this evolving religion from oblivion. He believed, without a successor Nanak-Panth wouldn’t have survived. He also noted that as the followers grew in number, the philosophy of Nanak was ascribed on new members at birth. McLeod pointed to the fact that with growing number of disciples and expansion of geographical area, there was an increasing pressure for certain changes. Therefore, came into existence the system of supervision, through which people were appointed to act on behalf of the guru. The concept of Langar also arrived during this time. Langar system brought inspiration from Nanak’s preaching against caste-system and unequal treatment of human beings.

The story of the establishment of Sikhism is incomplete without a brief glimpse into the emergence of Khalsa. According to the most popular belief, Guru Govind Singh baptised Sikhs to instigate them against the oppressive ruling and injustice of Mughals. Khalsas are those who go through an initiation ceremony and follow certain codes of conduct which consist of abstinence from liquor, tobacco, practice of dowry or, casteism and protecting the defenceless. Their duties also include worshiping one divine being and contributing one-tenth of earnings for religious purpose. McLeod cited a few more traditional explanations of the origin of Khalsa. One of those suggests that after Guru Tegh Bahadur who died a horrifying death at the hands of Mughals, the Sikhs became terrified, which provoked Guru Govind Singh to turn them into Khalsas ‘to ensure that never again would Sikhs be able to take refuge in anonymity”. (McLeod 1989)

Inspite of Guru Nanak’s preaching against outward rites and practices, Sikhism fell prey to institutional worships and rituals such as the Gurudwara and initiation ceremonies. W.H. McLeod explained these changes as responses towards changed situations, which he believed was necessary as “a growing and maturing Panth could never have sustained the informality of the first Guru’s practice”. Like many other religions, Sikhism could not avoid internal divisions and was split into Amritdharis, Keshdharis and Sahajdharis. Baptized Sikhs who follow all the tenets are Amritdharis; while Sikhs who are not baptized are known as Keshdharis. Sahajdhari Sikhs are those who are not born within Sikhism and choose to become one by following the doctrines. McLeod also noted that caste distinction was not absent among Sikhs though there was no caste based discrimination. By referring to local narratives, he showed that not onlywere all the Gurus were from Khatri caste; but they also followed old traditional practices of marriage. Studies showed that though the lower castes as well as outcastes embraced Sikhism, the way they used to be treated did not change much. The Jats who according to Hindu Varna system were treated as ‘Shudras’, were attracted to egalitarian nature of Sikhism and converted themselves into Sikhs (Puri 2009). Gradually, they earned land, wealth and high social status. Later colonial rulers elevated the position of Jat Sikhs in British Indian Army. Jats were glorified as loyal, courageous and racially ‘pure’ (Puri 2009). Possession of Land became synonymous with ‘dominant caste’. Mazhabi, Balmiki Sikhs, who did not have any right over land and used to perform menial works, became outcastes. Mazhabi, Rahtia, Ramdasia Sikhs along with few other groups were considered untouchables and prohibited from accessing wells and entering into the Golden Temple . The instances of discrimination during Langar are not uncommon. Incidences of prohibiting entry of Dalit Sikhs into Gurdwaras and proscribing them from using common cremation grounds led to establishment of separate Gurdwaras and cremation grounds for Dalits.

While Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam are theistic in nature, Buddhism and Jainism are what Clothey (2006) described as ‘heterodoxies’. According to him, heterodoxies were those who challenged the Vedic authority and put emphasis on action (Karma) rather than on wisdoms. They not only rejected God but refused to accept the existence of life after death. Buddhism and Jainism attracted merchants (Vaishyas) with its simplistic principles which stressed on morality and working ones way towards salvation (Clothey 2006).

1.4. Buddhism

Buddha refers to one who has attained complete spiritual awakening (Lillie 1975). It means ‘the enlightened one’. Gautam Buddha was born in the fifth century BC at Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu). He was named Siddhartha (Siddhattha) Gautama. At a young age he realised that suffering is inevitable and went in search of truth. The notion of impermanence and suffering is in the core of Buddhism (Frauwallner 2010). The suffering emanates from ignorance about the ‘real nature of things’. Therefore, Buddha explained four truths5 and eight paths6 that can enable one to live a life without misery (Krishna 2010). There was no concept of God in Buddhism during the nascent period. However, at a later stage Buddha was deified and rituals evolved. The followers were divided into two sects; Mahayana and Hinayana. The Mahayna sect perceives Buddha as a divine being while followers of Hinayana recognize him as an enlightened human being.

‘Human beings are one and the same in their essential characteristics’ (Krishna 2010. P.104); this was the preaching of Buddha. Buddhist philosophy didn’t really go beyond this immediate life and dealt with ‘eternity’; neither did it try to answer questions regarding existence or, non-existence of God. Rather, Buddhism tried to end the suffering of human beings that emanates from desire and greed. The Scholars believe that Buddhism improved the life of women as it emphasized on equal treatment of both genders. Bhikkhuni Sanghas brought rays of hope for women, who got the opportunity to educate themselves. It also criticized the caste system and untouchability that was prevalent among Hindus. Buddha undermined the position of Brahmin by saying that every person has the right to reach the ‘highest perfection’ irrespective of their gender or, socio-economic background. Buddha asked human beings to abstain from violence, killing and practicing slavery. Buddha emphasized on rational thinking and discussion on resolving issues as opposed to believing something blindly on account of its being tradition, old or, written. Buddha’s teachings have been collected in Tripitakas. Buddhism, because of its non-discriminating feature attracted those people who were downtrodden and suffered on account of being at the lowest strata of social order.

Buddhism and Jainism are not only similar in principles, but similarity can also be found in the stories regarding the early life of Buddha and Mahavir. Both were from royal families and renounced their wealth afterwards (Clothey 2006).

1.5. Jainism

5 Existence of suffering, origin of suffering, extinction of suffering and path that lead to cessation of suffering are the four truths. [see The Buddha- The Essence of Dhamma and Its Practice. P.129]

6 Right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness, right concentration are the eight paths.[p. 134]

Jainism is considered as one of the oldest religions of India. The term Jain came from ‘Jina’. Jina is the one who has been liberated from worldly emotions and enlightened with ‘infinite knowledge’ (Sangave 2001). Self-control, morality, meditation, omniscience and non-violence are the pith of Jainism. Jainism is divided into Digambar and Shvetambar sects. However, it has not been possible to figure out the exact reason of this division. The differences between these two sects are also minimal.

It is believed, Jinas, who strive for the liberation of the human beings, appeared as Tirthankaras at different periods of time. According to Jain phiolosophy, there are twenty four Tirthankaras. Mahavir Jain is believed to be the last one of them.

Jainism also encouraged charity or, ‘dana’. In jainism, charity is believed to be a way of controlling ones greed which is the source of violence (Sangave 2001). It promoted charity by means of offering education, medicine, food and shelter.

Unlike all these religions, Christianity came to India at a recent period. It arrived with Christian missionaries who saw the opprtune of proselytisation in people’s indignation towards the prejudiced caste system. Apart from these, there are many other religions as well as cults which are less heard of. Bauls which can be found in Bengal is the example of one such cult which is similar to Sufism. They are wandering minstrels, who renounced their previous connection to Hinduism or, Islam. In north-eastern India old animistic tribal religion still prevails. According to Clothey (2006), origin of some of the Gods and Goddesses in Hinduism can be found in Tribal religions. It can also be assumed that all the religions which claim hegemony over others on account of being old or, ultimate are delusional.

2.     Religious Reform Movements

Asghar Ali Engineer (1998) often referred to religions as Dogmas. A dogma, according to him is an ‘authoritative doctrine’ which gradually over time gains acceptance by a huge mass and becomes unchallengeable. He denoted this stage as ‘doctrinaire syndrome’ and maintained that most of the major religious faiths are affected by it. He said, “As life is full of uncertainties and doubts, human beings are normally in search of certainty, security and sanctity, and dogmas and doctrines provide all three” (1998.P.3). However, while tracing the origins of religion, one can see that these all started with the search for truth. Religions were meant to be guidelines that would lead human beings to the right path. Engineer (1998 stated that Islam for example, stressed on thinking, reasoning, contemplating and wisdom. It cautioned against accepting tradition without questioning as “blind faith would lead to empty rituals” (Engineer 1998.P.7) However, over time, these religions digressed into meaningless rituals and superstitions. The stagnation of religions gave birth to all the religious reform movements. Since medieval to contemporary period, history has witnessed several reform movements. Some of these movements were conspicuous while others were more subtle. Bhakti and Brahma Samaj movement were of the former type, while Sufi movement and Bauls were less conspicuous. Along with Bhakti movement and Brahma Samaj movement, we will also discuss dalit movement which also started as a revolutionary reaction against caste based oppression and issue of untouchability.

2.1. Bhakti Movement

Bhakti movement originated during the medieval period and occurred at different places in different times throughout the succeeding centuries as a revolutionary response to the decadence of prevalent religions (Khan). Bhakti has been defined as devotion, love, meditation and continuous remembrance and even as prayer. Ramanuja defined it as “absolute self-surrender to God”. T. Chinnathambi (1994) wrote that Bhakti is attainable by “God’s realization through devotion” rather than ritual. An essential feature of Bhakti movement is monotheism. Ramanuja in Tamilnadu, Jayadeva and Namadeva, Ramananda, Kabir, Chaitanya in Bengal, Tulsidas, Mirabai are some of the proponents of Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement was open to people of all kinds of religion, caste, class and gender. People oppressed by caste hierarchies took solace under it. The advocates of this movement preached equality. According to Ramanuja, anyone can attain salvation as devotion knows neither caste, colour or, social status. Bhakti movement, undermined varna system and the superiority of Brahminism. It was characterized by equality of all irrespective of caste, creed, religion or social and economic status, resistance against caste system, opposition to idolatry and ritualistic practices and complete devotion.

Most of the proponents of this movement preferred the vernacular language instead of Sanskrit as local languages were easily understood by the masses. Therefore, the movement had an enormous impact on the vernacular literature. Tulsidas authored ‘Ramcharitmanas’ in Hindi, while Chandidas produced ‘ShriKrishnakirtan in Bengali. Sri Chaitanya preached the messages in Bengali throughout his life. At a later period, while residing in Puri he encouraged his disciple to use Oriya. Kabir propounded unity, equality and futility of rituals through poems written in Hindi while Marathi was used by Eknath and Tukaram. Such movements arose whenever, there was oppression and suffering and embraced by a large number of people who were otherwise excluded in the name of caste, class or, jati. Rishi movement and Sant tradition are examples of such movements.

Brahma Samaj movement on the other hand emphasized on recovering the “pure intellectuality of Upanisads” and was mostly embraced by few educated ones but failed to attract people from all sections of society.

2.2.  Brahma Samaj Movement

This religious reform movement started in Bengal by Raja Rammohan Roy during nineteenth century. It was an attempt of few enlightened people to redeem the moral character and to liberate the mass from horrid religious and social rites, rituals and superstitions like Sati, child-marriage, witchcraft, polygamy and other social malaise. This movement started with Rammohan’s rejection of idolatry and criticism of priesthood. He translated Vedanta and five Upanishads in order to inform masses that his assertion is true as it is written in the oldest texts of Hinduism. In 1828, he established Brahma Samaj, which was meant to encourage assembly of all those who did not believe in ritualistic practices, idol worship and had faith in the ‘unity of God’. Afterwards the Brahma Samaj got divided into different sects because of internal Schism.

This reform campaign did not restrict itself to religion but took an ambitious step towards social reform as well. It raised awareness for education of women and eradication of ‘Purdah’ system. Schools and colleges were established and journals were published especially for women. The revolutionaries advocated a ban against polygamy and child-marriage while they supported widow-remarriage. The Civil Marriage Act (1872), which proscribed early-marriage, polygamy and authorised intercaste marriage is believed to be in existence because of Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahma Samaj movement. Brahma Samaj of India, which was separated from the Adi Brahma Samaj of Debendranath Tagore under the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen also indulged in philanthropical works like famine relief, night school, dispensaries, etc. Towards the end of the nineteenth century the Brahma Samaj movement gradually disappeared into obsolesce.

2.3. Dalit movement

In the recent period, the biggest movement witnessed against Brahminism is the Dalit movement under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. It was an attack on the socio-cultural hegemony of so called higher castes. Ambedkar wanted to elevate the social status of Dalits which he realised will not be possible except by conversion to another religion. Buddhism, which stands at the exact opposite of Brahminism with its equality, simplicity and refusal of idolatry, presented a suitable alternative. According to B.R. Ambedkar, Buddha wanted this religion to be such that is open to change as need arises.

“He wished his religion not to be encumbered with the dead wood of the past. He wanted that it should remain evergreen and serviceable at all times.” (1999. P. 188) While Brahminism posed Vedas as infallible and unquestionable, Buddhism taught ‘nothing is infallible’. It stressed on reasoning and transience (Prasad 1993). Ambedkar also stated that while the root of Hinduism lies in ‘social necessities’, Buddhism thrived upon the principal of morality. Ambedkar and a large number of his followers converted to Buddhism in 1956.

Discussion on religion in India cannot be complete without a glance at the post colonial period. Politics in India has always been under too much influence of religion. History has witnessed religion causing conflict and divergent political interests. Therefore, the leaders used the ideology of secularism to unite the whole nation.

3. Emergence of secular India

Though India is defined as a secular country, the debate over its secular characteristics never ceased. India was declared as secular in the 42nd amendment (1976). In western societies, secularism evolved due to conflict between the church and the state. The supreme authority of the church was challenged because it was viewed as a hindrance for growth, which resulted in separation of church or, religion from politics (Engineer 2011). But, in a country like India, where religion is omnipresent, it is not an easy task to separate nation-state from religion. Therefore, it focussed on treating all religions equally.

The term ‘secularism’ was coined by George Holyoake in the mid nineteenth century. He believed that unity of principles can win over the diversity of opinions. Thus he wished to bring all human beings, irrespective of their religious beliefs, under the term ‘secular’. Various scholars have defined secularism in different manners. But mostly, they have agreed that secularism is the separation of religion from state or, politics (Bhargava). Some scholars have also defined it as separation of the private from public sphere. Secularism ensures the equality of all citizens.

Nehru described secularism as “freedom of religion and conscience, including freedom of those who may have no religion. It means free play of all religions, subject only to their not interfering with each other or with basic conceptions of our state.” Therefore, Nehruvian ideology viewed secularism as a state of separation between religion and public affairs. Indira Gandhi, the third Prime Minister of India referred to secularism as equal alignment with all religions (Chatterji, 1995). According to Amartya Sen, a secular state must treat all the religions equally. P.C. Chatterji (1995) described a secular state as one that forbids discrimination of citizens on the basis of religion. Non-interference of state in religious issues has also been mentioned by him as a crucial feature of a secular state.

In India, secularism evolved due to political prerequisite. In order to fight colonialism, it was necessary to unite everyone. During the 1920s, the Indian National Congress used the notion of secularism in uniting people from all sections of society irrespective of their religious beliefs against colonial rule. However, after independence, instead of refurbishing the old British structure of governance, which relied on consulting people like Maulavis or, Pundits to resolve issues for respective communities, the constitution of independent India to some extent followed the old structure (Anand). Therefore, the new constitution was not free from imperfections and it reinforced the previous asymmetric ways of treating citizens based on their religious faiths. In the absence of a uniform civil code, the constitution depended on varying personal laws for various religious communities in resolving issues regarding marriage, divorce, adoption, succession, inheritance, etc.

Since its introduction, the constitution has gone through numerous modifications. Many of such modifications have been done with the intentions of reforming Hindu personal laws. For instance, divorce and inheritance right of women was introduced. Furthermore, in resolving family matters state got the ultimate jurisdiction in case of Hindus. Such is not the case of other religious communities. Islamic laws did not go under any reforms and the consequence of applying personal law was witnessed during the Shah Bano Case7.

Whether or not to implement a uniform civil code is a matter of raging controversy, as many religious communities feel that abolishing personal law will inevitably be replaced with laws manifesting Hindu interests. Moreover, after independence, the clause of reservation opened a door for lower caste people to move upward in the status quo; which according to Ornit Shani (2008), created a complex situation. The upper caste felt threatened by the reservation policies as the situation improved for the backward castes. They assumed that the policies are favouring lower caste people, which gave rise to resentment and violence.

Though the caste system is an inherent feature of Hinduism, at present, caste is seen more as a political discourse (Shani 2008). According to the constitution, a person who belongs to any religion other than Hinduism cannot be considered as scheduled caste and if a schedule caste person gives up Hinduism s/he will no more be considered for the right of reservation as other religions do not have any concept of caste. Therefore, the caste system is not a rigid system governed by the religion anymore. It is governed and defined by the state and its reservation policies.

In spite of advocating secularism, India has witnessed communal violence between religious communities numerous times. Killing of Christian missionaries, violence against Sikhs, recent Gujarat carnage and continual atrocities against Dalits are only glimpses of such violence.

According to Periyar, religion is nothing but the obstacle of society (Veeramani 2011). He believed that religion is the source of all kinds of inequalities and ‘social injustice’. The tendency to prove that one’s religion is superior to that of others resulted only in conflicts. The Hindutva movement that had started in early 1900s resulted in atrocities against Muslims in different places at different times. The announcement of jihad8 by the student organization SIMI is believed to be a counter 

7 Shah Bano Begum, at the age of 62 filed a law suit against her husband after being divorced with five children. The lower court as well as the Supreme Court gave the verdict in her favour. Although the verdict created a huge sensation and was criticized as it was against Islamic law. It was seen as a threat to Islam. Shah Bano Begum was denied the alimony.

8 Islam in the current period is often being associated with ‘Jihad’. The political situation has aggravated the scenario and highlighted Islam in association with violence. Asghar Ali Engineer, act against the Hindutva movement by some. Recently, SIMI9 portrayed Prophet Muhammad as the ‘prophet of wars’. Irfan Ahmad (2010) on this account remarked that this was invented in the political context where Muslims are becoming the victims of violence. This is how the religious texts and their meanings undergo change to serve the interests of the people in the time of crisis and need. By crisis, I meant the issue of communalism, which assumes that India is divided into distinct religious communities whose interests are contradictory (Chandra 2004).

Communalism according to Bipan Chandra (1987) emerged in India as a result of modern politics. Communalism gets strength from the notion of serving a certain ‘community’, for e.g. Hindu, Muslim or, Sikh. While talking about communalism, one needs to remember that these communities are by no means homogenous in nature. They are divided in terms of region, language, culture, class, social status, food habits and even in customs and ritualistic practices. Chandra (1987) further explained it by saying that “an upper class Muslim had far more in common culturally with an upper class Hindu than with a lower class Muslim. And a Panjabi Hindu stood closer culturally to a Panjabi Muslim than to a Bengali Hindu”. Moreover, thousands of years of cohabitation made people of different religious faiths to exchange and accept beliefs of others. Scholars argued that while seeking the solutions to certain problems, the boundaries between faiths often dissolve, making people seek refuge of gods of other religions. Thus we have deities like Dakhsin Roy and Banbibi in the Sunderban area of Bengal. These deities are worshipped by both Hindus as well as

while explaining the relation between Islam and Jihaad said that Islam is not merely an abstract doctrine. It does consider the socio-political context. Thus, Quran “opposes violence but permits it contextually” (Engineer 1998). He asked the reader to consider the socio-political as well as socio-economic condition of a society where a religion evolves in order to have better understanding. Islam was originated in a period of oppression and suffering. “Thus the Quran sanctions war if the weak are being persecuted and there is no other way left to rescue them.” Hinduism and Sikhism have also supported violence in times of crisis.

9 Students’ Islamic Movement of India is an organization which has been banned a few times after 9/11, as it has been suspected of being involved in terrorism.

Muslims in the hope of getting protection against tigers. Also, if one looks at the shrines of Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir, one can see the influence of Buddhism as most of the Muslims in Kashmir were converted from Buddhism.

4. Impact of religon on women

Women are the most vulnerable victims of religion. Women have suffered through practices like dowry system, sati, child marriage, polygamy, and devdasi. Hindu religious scriptures have always glorified those female characters that have showed devotion and obedience in spite of suffering. Sumona Vohra (2003) argued that the existent social and economic inequality is derived from these texts. In Islam, women are considered inferior to men. They are advised to be obedient and cover themselves with a veil. Similarly, sacred Hindu texts made women slaves to their father, husband or, sons. They were even advised to worship their husbands. Women were proscribed to remarry after the death of their husbands and instructed to stay loyal to the deceased (Chatterji 1995). It is believed that some of these rituals were restricted to upper caste people. Gradually they were adopted by other castes as well. For instance, at first Sati was prevalent among Brahmins but later it was found in practice among all. Chatterji (1995) also showed that in Buddhism, bhikkhunis are considered inferior to bhikkhus. Bhikkhus are entitled to admonish and “receive cofession of bhikkhunis, but not vice versa” (1995. P.290).

5. Conclusion

Religions in India are vast and complex in nature. The above discussions showed that not only are these religions distinct in nature, but their numerous sects and sub-sects also vary in terms of beliefs and practices. Some of these religions are animistic, polytheistic or, monotheistic in nature; while others are atheistic. Many cults and sects evolved gradually from these religions most of which degraded over time and are considered corrupted and exploitative now. It also showed that casteism pervaded other religions as well and conversion could not stop caste related atrocities. To ensure equal treatment for all its citizens, India was declared a secular country. It is a country of assorted religions, cultures, values, beliefs and practices. Respect instead of tolerance can lead it towards realizing the true nature of secularism.

Web links

• Metcalf, Barbara D. “A Historical Overview of Islam in South Asia”.
• http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9061.pdf Anand, Anchal. “The Curious Case of Indian secularism”.
• http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital‐Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3‐1e9c‐be1e‐2c24‐ a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=152307 Marx, Karl. Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right 1843-44. Trans. Joseph O’Malley. Oxford University Press, 1970.
• www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/Marx_Critique_of_Hegels_Philosophy_of_Right.pdf Weber, Max. The Sociology of Religion.
• http://www.e‐reading.link/bookreader.php/145149/The_Sociology_of_Religion.pdf Anand, Anchal.
• “The Curious Case of Indian secularism”.
• http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital‐Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3‐1e9c‐be1e‐2c24‐ a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=152307
• Sen, Ragini. Wagner, Wolfgang and Howarth, Caroline. “Secularism and religion in Multifaith societies: The Case of India”. Springer Briefs in Political Science.
• http://www.springer.com/psychology/personality+%26+social+psychology/book/978-3-319-01921-5

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