13 Region and Regionalism in India

Sumati Unkule

India is a country marked by huge diversity in terms of geography, culture, caste, class, language, religion, region, art, food etc. With this remarkable diversity comes the challenge to keep it intact and integrated. Indian history, despite its belief in ‘unity in diversity’, has shown several traces of conflicts and clashes over religious, cultural, linguistic and regional differences. State response to such conflicts has had the tendency to be been knee-jerk. While this has helped to temporarily cool tempers, it has not offered long-term solutions that have kept in mind the diverse fabric of the Indian nation or the issues that have been raised by conflicting groups that have mobilized themselves around these issues time and again. Communities, especially those that perceive themselves to be marginalized and ignored, feel isolated from government policies that they consider to be unfair to them and tailor-made for the national or regional elites. This leads to the genesis of demands for rights, adequate expression, identity recognition and integration with the national economy (Vinod 2014).

These socio-cultural and economic differences and issues related to identity recognition that have come up therein ever since India attained Independence, have led to several uprisings, ranging from civil protests to demands for secession. Though all of these fall under the broad category called regionalism, they are not all the same type of regional movements – some are for the recognition of identity, some to undo decades of economic neglect and some to secede from the Indian federation. India has witnessed all of these, including movements for a better economic package for a region or the preservation of culture and language or a separate state, which have been means by which communities have expressed their demands to the state (Vinod 2014). In this module we will study the concept of region, and regionalism in India. We will study the history and the causes of regionalism. Lastly, we will study the concept of regionalism through the case study of the North East region in India.

What is Region?

Simply put, a region is a geographical area that has common geographical features like soil, vegetation, agriculture, natural resources, etc. Because of these common geographical features, the inhabitants have a common culture, economic and social life. As a result, they develop a sense of we-feeling among themselves as they share common life conditions.

The Penguin dictionary of Geography (2003, p.411) defines a region as an area of the earth’s surface with one or more features or characteristics (natural or the result of human activity) which give a measure of unity and make it differ from the areas surrounding it. Lundberg (1958, p.141) defines region as an area within which the people and the different constituent communities are conspicuously more inter-dependent than they are with other people of other areas. A region is a nucleus of social aggregation for a variety of purposes. A particular territory is set apart, over a period of time, when different variables operate in different degrees. These variables may be geography, topography, religion, language, usages and customs, socio-economic and political stages of development, common historical traditions and experiences, a common way of living, and more than anything else, a widely prevalent sentiment of ‘togetherness’ (Akhtar, 1984, p. 3). However, region is not a static concept, it is always in process. According to Kumar (2011, p.77), region is not merely a set of some topographical forms such as mountains, rivers, jungles and so on, but a total space which takes specific forms through interactions of human societies in the course of human history. Therefore, the meaning of a region is constantly altered. Forrester (1970, p.6) defines a region as ‘a smaller area within a region or nation, which for economic, historical, and social reasons is aware of possessing a distinct identity’.

A specific geographical area keeps changing with human activities in that region like mining, industrialization, migrations, constructions, etc. Thus, humans give specific material forms for a region by acting upon its natural surroundings. Hence the region is developed out of a dialectical relation between nature and human beings. Therefore, to understand any region it is necessary to understand the processes of human interactions as well as its natural specificities. The region is integrated by institutions like the State. The state determines a specific role for a region and hence the role of the State is very crucial (Kumar, 2011).

Regionalism

The term regionalism has various connotations. At the international level, regionalism refers to transnational cooperation to achieve a common goal or to resolve a shared problem or it refers to a group of countries, such as Western Europe, the Western Balkans, or Southeast Asia, that are linked by geography, history or economic features. Used in this sense, regionalism refers to attempts to reinforce the links between these countries. Today, the foremost example of such an attempt is the European Union (EU) (Bevir, 2009). In the Indian context, the term regionalism refers to the ‘ism’ which evokes pride in the inhabitants for the region they belong to. When the we-feeling and loyalty of the people of a region exceeds the feeling for the nation that is regionalism. Thus, it is a regional loyalty in place of national loyalty.

At the core of regionalism is a profound sense of identity, which is real, and as dear, to a people than their feeling of identity with a state or a nation or a religious group, or a linguistic group. These are cultural realities, and one cannot just wish them away (Maheshwari, 1973, p.442). Regionalism is a process in which sub-state actors become increasingly powerful and independent of the state: power devolves from the central state to regional governments within it (Gochhayat, 2013). According to Bhattacharya (2005), regionalism has possibly remained the most compelling force in Indian politics after independence. Regionalism largely has two connotations. In the negative sense, it implies excessive attachment to one’s region over the state. In the positive sense it is a political attribute associated with people’s love for their region, culture, language, etc. In India, the term regionalism largely has a negative connotation. Such feelings develop among the people due to the feeling (real or created) of continuous neglect by the government which has led to uneven development among the regions. The existence of a region, does not per se give rise to regionalism. It is the nexus between people and their socio- economic and political environment which gives rise to regionalism. The degree of regionalism of particular areas can increase or decrease depending on regional dynamics, in which global as well as national/local forces of course have an impact (Majumdar, 1997).

Regionalism in Indian politics is treated by nationalist leaders as a very serious threat to the progress, peace and unity of the country. It has generally been regarded as something that is anti-national, anti-system, anti-federal and against the basic interests of a well-integrated and well- developed polity (Reddy, 1979, p.3).

Studies on Region, Regionalism: Literature Review

Certain studies view political parties as catalysts of regional consciousness (Fickett, 1971). Hechter’s argues that regionalism is the outcome of a real or perceived sense of ‘Internal Colonialism’ (Hechter, 1975). The essence of the internal colonial model is that the relationship between members of core communities and the peripheral communities in a state are characterized by exploitation (Birch, 1978).

In relation to India, most of the studies in the area of region and regionalism are carried out in the discipline of political science, economics and geography. Economists have studied region, from the perspective of development and regional disparities (Desai, 1986; David, 1984). The studies in geography focuse on rethinking regional development (Choudhary,2009), gender aspects of spaces and region (Raju, 1982) or identifying regional patterns of fertility and sex-ratios (Arokiasamy, 2007); and migration and marriage (Fulford, 2013). Political scientists have focused on various aspects of region and regionalism like causes of the rise of regionalism and its movement. For instance, we have the Telangana movement (Bonagani (2011); and the Karnataka movement (Assadi, 2011). Alam (1984) studies the dimensions of state autonomy movements in India. Studies on ethnic movement as part of regionalism (Dubey, 1972), and development and regions (Prakash, 2011; Mukherjee, 2011) are also carried out. Regionalism in specific states of Maharashtra (Vora, 1984), Andhra Pradesh (Subrahmanyam, 1984), and Punjab especially the communal dimensions of regionalism (Kumar, 1984), causes obstacles for nationalism in North East India (Rahamathulla, 1984); politics of regionalism in North East India (Pachuau, 2014) are also studied. Scholars like Brass (1982) and Khan (1992) have viewed regionalism in terms of federalism and centre-state relations.

Regionalism in India: A Brief Background

Contemporary India is witnessing various movements centered on identity issues. These movements are fought on the lines of region, religion, language, caste and community. These struggles have found expressions in the changed mode of electoral representation that has brought the local/regional into focus with the hitherto politically dormant groups and regions finding voices. A more genuinely representative democracy has led to the sharpening of the line of distinction between or among the identity groups and regions (Kumar, 2009:14).

The federal system in India confers more power to the Centre than to the States. As a result there are various tensions in various regions of India which are different from others parts of India in terms of culture, language, and many other factors. Regionalism in India is rooted in India’s manifold diversity of languages, cultures, tribes, communities, religions and so on, and encouraged by the regional concentration of those identity markers, and fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. However, the centre- state relations stand as the root cause of regionalism in India.(Gochhayat, 2013).

Regionalism in India has remained a powerful force in the post-independence politics in India. It has its roots in the history and the geography of India. India is a land of diverse culture, language, tribes, communities and religions. These are concentrated in certain parts of India i.e, the identity markers are concentrated in certain regions. The post-independence, linguistic reorganization of states could not contain all the sub-regions. In spite of carving states on the basis of language, there remained certain sub-regions which had different cultures or languages. This led to the demand of separate statehoods. These have often taken the form of countrywide agitations and campaigns. Secessionist movements rose in Punjab, Kashmir, Manipur, Tripura and Nagaland and movements for autonomy rose in Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Uttaranchal, and Gorkhaland.

Thus keeping in mind India’s rich linguistic and regional diversity, some of the marginalised groups have been ignored by the state in the past. They have remained outside the purview of the state’s development paradigm. To overcome this inequality and to prevent political instability, past governments have granted special status and provisions to particular ethnic groups such as religious and cultural rights for minorities, protective discrimination for marginal groups and grant of autonomous administrative units. This has, however, led to the increased use of identity as the basis for making demands and obtaining entitlements from the state. As a result, the heightened competition between identity groups has further politicized the issue of identity. For instance, the movements for the creation of separate Gorkhaland in West Bengal – demanding a bifurcation of West Bengal into a Nepali-speaking Gorkhaland and Bengali-speaking West Bengal – and of a separate Bodoland in Assam are purely based on the issue of identity. The Gorkhas and the Bodos demanded autonomous states of their own based on their identities, which were treated as inferior to the dominant Bengali and Assamese identities in West Bengal and Assam, respectively. To take another instance of identity-based collective mobilizations in India, the movement for an independent Kashmir gained momentum in the 1990s in response to electoral malpractices, neglect of people’s opinion, removal of special status granted to Jammu & Kashmir, low levels of socio-economic development, high levels of unemployment, political interference by the central government and so on. The Naga insurgency came to an end after the central government accepted the demand of the Nagas for a separate state to be carved out of three districts of Assam, where the majority was the Naga-speaking community. So, in 1962, the new state of Nagaland was formed. Similarly, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura were created in the 1970s to meet the people’s aspirations for self-rule, based on their distinct identity (Vinod 2014).

Thus, regionalism in India is manifested in 4 ways: demand of the people of certain areas for secession from the Indian Union, demand of the people of certain areas for separate statehood, demand of the people of certain union territories for full-fledged statehood, and the demand of certain people for favourable settlement in inter-state disputes (Perumal, cited in Narang, 1985:304)

Causes of the Rise of Regionalism in India

Let us briefly see the causes of the rise of regionalism in India.

Firstly, regionalism develops if certain regions feel neglected (real or imagined) by the ruling parties. Hechter (1975) refers to this phenomenon as internal colonialism. In this, the concentration of power in the hands of few in a state may also lead to a demand for a separate state.The demand for a separate state of Vidarbha in Maharashtra is an example of this. People in Vidarbha felt neglected as though there are many dams in Maharashtra, yet the region of Vidarbha faces drought almost every year. Most farmers commit suicides there every year. People from other parts of Maharashtra, who are politically more powerful, are successful in grabbing resources for their regions in Maharashtra.

Many a times, regionalism is seen in the form of inter-state disputes largely over sharing of mineral resources and river-water. For instance, as is seen in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

India has a very large geographical area. As a result, many a times, the national government imposes certain types of culture, language and identity on the people. Certain regions do feel this as an imposition. Regionalism develops in these regions so that they themselves can develop their own culture and language. Uttaranchal and Jharkhand are cases in point. For instance, the people from South India think that to have Hindi as the national language is an imposition on them from the people of the North. There is discontent among the South Indians regarding this matter.

The various development programs carried out in certain regions of India, make regional disparities more acute. This leads to a sense of deprivation among the people of certain regions. This, coupled with increasing politicization in the community, is sure to impart sharper focus to regionalism which would emerge more prominently as a factor of significance in Indian polity (Gochhayat, 2013).

Some regions in India especially in northeast have been demanding autonomy from India, on the basis that the Indian government has been giving them step-motherly treatment. The problems of the North East region are particularly acute as they never felt as ‘belonging’ to India. This was because of various reasons like: they were poorly connected to the other parts of India, their history, their culture was not adequately represented, they are ethnically, linguistically and culturally very distinct from the other states, they are territorially organized in such a manner that ethnic and cultural specificities were ignored during the process of delineation of state boundaries in the 1950s and many other such reasons. As a result the North East region of India is simmering with various ethnic conflicts, and secessionist movements too have erupted in Nagaland.

Regionalism is an ideology that is manufactured by the elite belonging to the groups. To legitimize their power and domination by using an instrument of regional ideology, they emphasize the differences between the different groups. A distinction between ‘we’ and ‘they’, between regional ‘outsiders’ and ‘sons of the soil’ is brought to the surface by them, transforming the latent emotions lying behind such phenomena into a regional or sub-regional ideology to serve certain political ends. It is a conflict between regional elites and national elites (Mudholkar, 1984). Many a times, the regional elites desire to have more power in their region. Political parties like Dravida Munnettra Kazhagam (DMK), Telugu Desam Party (TDM), Akali Dal and others have encouraged regionalism to gain more and more power in their region.

Case Study: North East Region

North East India is the eastern-most region of India comprising the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. The region is connected to India through a 30 km long narrow corridor between Bhutan and Bangladesh. It shares its borders with 5 countries. The geographical size of North East is about 8% of the total size of India. According to a 2011 Census, its population is 3.1% of the total Indian population. The region consists of more than 220 linguistic and ethnic groups. They are diverse in terms of ethnic origins, language and religious pluralism. According to Burman (1984, p.68), taking an overall view it can be stated that North East India is a mosaic of societies characterized by diversities of racial stock; tradition of origin; social organization; languages and dialects; religion; economic pursuits, technology and patterns of resource mobilization; productive relations and participation in the political process. These states are grouped under the Ministry of Development Of North East Region of Government of India. This Ministry is responsible for the matters relating to the planning, execution and monitoring of development schemes and projects in the North Eastern Region. Its vision is to accelerate the pace of socio-economic development of the Region so that it may enjoy growth parity with the rest of the country (http://www.mdoner.gov.in/).

The emergence of British India and the international political boundaries drawn during colonial rule provided the foundation for post colonial political order of nation state. The Partition of 1947 and the state of diplomatic relations between India and its neighbors turned India into a ‘sensitive border region’ requiring special attention based on national security concerns. For the North East part of India having international border with Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, this condition has not been conducive to the region’s socio- economic, political and emotional integration with the centre-state and ‘mainland’ India (Baruah:2005; Bhaumik:2009; Pachuau:2005). This was further hampered by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971 (Amendment Bill No. 47 of 2012) wherein the once British India region or provinces namely Assam and the princely states of Manipur and Tripura began to attain full-fledged statehood, on linguistic lines. Nagaland attained statehood in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, , Manipur in 1972, Tripura in 1972, Arunachal Pradesh in 1987, Mizoram in 1987 and Sikkim in 2002. Furthermore, geo-political governance pressure was built upon due to globalization complemented by a new phenomenon of de-territorialization and re-territorialization especially within the indigenous tribal inhibited areas (Baral:2006; Appadurai:1996; Castles:2000p187-190; Srinivas et al. 1972; Bose 1990).

Since the inception of India as a sovereign state from the British imperial power, geographical and cultural differences between land-locked Northeast and ‘mainland’ India have potentially become a complex phenomena which underpins the question of identity and the national imagination of nation-state (Tambiah:1996). The rise of ethnic assertions in the form of ethnic extremism or secessionist movements in the North East are mainly due to the desperate attempt by ethnic groups to preserve their socio-cultural and linguistic identity from the ‘mainstream’ cultures (Dena:2009, Baruah:2005). Also, it is the minority or indigenous tribal groups who suffer the most for the sake of ‘national development’. With no written history of their own, the indigenous peoples’ past can be obliterating overnight such as by the construction of dams in the indigenous tribal inhibited regions (Dietrich:2000). Such is the case with the North East where developmental processes often fail to address the legitimate concern of these minorities (Aloysius:1997). This further broadens the feeling of alienation amongst the people.

Since independence, every decade there has been some or the other violent movements in the region. Insurgency, an extreme form of ethnopolitical upsurge, has rocked five of the seven States at one time or another, and the remaining two States are highly poised for a similar movement. Today, the term ‘North East’ has come to become synonymous to ethnopolitical movements. The region is dominated by tribal people and the national mainstreams have always stereotyped tribals as ‘primitive’, ‘backward’, ‘superstitious’, and ‘ignorant’. These notions of the mainstream nationals are completely opposite to what the tribals of northeast share understanding of their own. As a result, pride is exhibited in the ethnonational feelings. Their fear of losing their identity was the major factor that led to ethnopolitical movements of insurgency. In tracing the historical development of insurgency in Nagaland, Asoso Yonuo attributes the people’s unpleasant experience of interaction with the ‘non-tribals’ to be one of the main causes of the revolution.

Throughout India time and again there have been instances where people of North East have faced discrimination. There are certain cities where they face problems to get accommodation and local people including the police exploit them. There are many who still think that they are losing their jobs and employment opportunities to the migrants and blame them for all the social evils prevailing in their societies. In 2012, after the Assam riots, thousands of North Eastern people from all over India, returned to their home state as they were targets of violence. Thousands, even from the metropolitan cities like Pune, Bangalore, and Chennai went home.

Therefore, we should not place an acute conceptual narrative to the disintegration of indigenous tribes from the North East within the identity scholarship. One cannot put an end to the cause of integrating a small set of people, a speck of that important particle, having distinct history and social trajectory, which inversely defines ethnic as well as national boundaries. Therefore, locating historical and cultural specificities of small communities from the North East becomes an important criterion for nation formation; the negotiation of cultural identity within the framework of a diverse nation, as that of India.

Summary

The above section deals with the concept of region and regionalism. Region is not a static concept but a process between humans and their interactions with the environment. It discusses the historical background of regionalism briefly and explains the causes. Lastly, it discusses the case study of the North East region in India.

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Internet Sites

http://www.mdoner.gov.in/