31 Modernization of Tradition

Sancharini Mitra and V Abhinaya

Table of Contents:

Introduction

1. What is modernization

2. Modernization Theory

3. History of Modernization in India

4. Sanskritization and Westernization

5. Little and Great Traditions

6. Structural Changes in India

7. Urbanization, Industrialization and Modernization

8. Advanced Communication

9. Nationalism and Modernization

10. Modernization in Education

11. Critiques of Modernization Theory

Summary

References

1. Introduction

This module attempts to bring out the ways in which scholars have looked at the process of modernization and its influence on the so-called traditions in the Indian society. It focuses on the key arguments related to modernization theory, traces the history of modernization as a process, and looks at the different arguments put forth by scholars like Redfield, Srinivas, and others. The module also tries to understand the different changes that took place in the social structures in India, both at the micro and the macro level. The module then focuses on urbanization, industrialization, advanced communication, changes in the educational sector, etc as a result of modernization. The module also traces the linkages of the nationalist spirit with modernization. Finally, it ends with a critique of the modernization theory.

2. What is Modernization?

The term ‘modernization’ generally refers to the process of transition between a ‘traditional’ agrarian society and the kind of ‘modern’ society that is based on trade and industry (Charlton and Andras 2003). Thus, it should be thought of as a continuous dynamic process, rather than a single ‘state’. However, as a singular concept, it is difficult to precisely define modernization. According to Horowitz, ‘every attempt to define modernization in terms of an operational set of variables results in a new set of ideas which have relatively little to do with the original concept’. (I.R. Horowitz: 1966: 306 c.f. Singh 1978) However, some of the important features that modernization comprises of can be viewed as 1)the psychological, 2)the normative, 3)the structural and 4)the technological (Singh 1978). The psychological conceptualization of modernization views individuals in the modernization process as being oriented towards mobility and innovation. According to the normative conceptualization, norms and values prevail over the individual psyche, thereby linking modernization to the existing cultural traditions of the West. The structural conceptualization revolves around external structures such as bureacracy, democracy, economy, etc. According to theorists such as Parsons, modern society is defined by these features (ibid). Lastly, the technological conceptualization views this process purely in terms of material progress and advanced infrastructure.

Finally, what is the relationship between modernity and tradition? The most common approach is to view modernity and tradition as two antithetical elements. Society, social institutions and the actors in them are either traditional or modern, and modernization is viewed as the inevitable process of social change from tradition to modernity. But is it really as simplistic as that? Did the advent of modernization radically alter the traditional social structure of India and make it completely ‘modern’ or do both tradition and modernity coexist in Indian society? The following account will attempt to look at this relationship more closely.

Modernization Theory

Modernization theory is an umbrella term used for a range of perspectives that sought to explain the processes of social change in the Third World during the 1950s and 1960s. Although the early classical theorists such as Comte, Weber, Marx and Durkhiem were interested in the modernization of the West, the present ‘modernization theory’ is primarily concerned with the modernization of the developing ‘non- modern’ nations (Deshpande 2004). After the Second World War, which hastened the process of decolonization, there were many newly formed nation-states whose main agenda was the modernization of their societies. They aimed to achieve material progress through the principles of science and rationality. This was occuring at the peak of the Cold War, when the United States spent a lot of resources on initiating modernization studies in these newly developing nations (ibid).

Daniel Lerner carried out one of the most famous of early modernization studies in his book called The Passing of Traditional Society (1958). Lerner examined the modernization process in Middle Eastern countries. He carried out a sample survey in underdeveloped countries & observed village society. He concluded that modernization is a global process. According to him, traditional society is disappearing and urbanization is on the increase. He gave particular importance to the role of the mass media, which he believed to be associated with other features of development such as urbanization and education. For Lerner, modernity is possible not only through changes in institutions, but also in individuals. He identified three types of people in the newly independent societies or the Third World- traditional, transitional and modern. According to him, modern individuals were happier, better informed and relatively young. People in the transitional stage were found in societies that were caught between tradition and modernity and tended to be more prone to extremisms due to their unstable social situation.

Another important theory that sought to explain modernization and Development was given by Walt Whitman Rostow, who suggested that all societies can be placed in one of five categories or stages of economic growth. The first stage is characterized by traditional society, wherein the majority of the people are engaged in subsistence agriculture and more investments are channelled in services or activities such as military and religion. In this stage, people have no access to science and technology (Harrison 1988).The second stage identified by Rostow is called the pre condition for takeoff where the economy undergoes a transition for building up of conditions for growth and takes off. New ideas which support economic progress arise along with education, business, better transportation and communication. However, in spite of the development of some types of modern manufacturing, traditional social structures and production techniques continue to co-exist, forming a kind of dual society (ibid).

The third stage is called the take off stage of economic growth. It is characterized by active economic growth due to economic, political and technological changes. There is a rapid increase in investments, industries, business enterprises and commercialization of agriculture (ibid). There is an overall increase in productivity in this stage. The fourth stage is called the drive to maturity where the main focus is on the extension of modern technology over other sectors of the economy, especially heavy industry. In this stage, between ten to twenty per cent of the national income is invested. Production now is more a matter of choice and luxury, than necessity. The final stage is called the age of high consumption in which the leading sectors in the society shift towards producing durable consumer goods and services. By this point, almost all basic needs are satisfied and there is a focus on welfare oriented activities and issues of equality and security.

3. History of Modernization in India

Modernization can be glimpsed through both structural transformation of Indian society and cultural changes. It is safe to say that the process began as a result of colonization, when there was a direct encounter of India’s traditional society with the modernizing West. Traditionally, the social structure in India was based on the caste system, which was a closed, hierarchical system based on the notions of purity and pollution. The colonizers introduced the earliest instruments of modernization-western education, bureacracy, system of civil rights, and a modern super-structure of state and economy among other things (Singh 1978). Exposure to these change agents led to the creation of a new political culture and a sense of nationalism. The combination of increased technology and western eduction together created a change in the traditional structure- it resulted in the formation of the middle class, which was largely absent previously. However, this new class did not completely break away from the traditional social structure, because most of the people who comprised of it belonged to the upper castes and thus there remained a class-caste congruency.

In the post-independence period, the modernization process followed the same pattern set during the colonial era. Since many of the leaders in the national movement had been educated in the West, there was a recognition of the benefits that modernization had brought to the West, and therefore the need to bring it to the Indian nation to become a stronger and more progressive nation. They realized early on that this meant a radical reorganization of Indian society, along with the elimination of its many cultural evils. As a result, the Zamindari system, Princely estates and several other such systems were made illegal (Singh 2012). The main aim of the modernization project in India was to make India an economically developed and socially just, and egalitarian republic through advancements in modern education, science and technology. While the colonial experience made the Indian leadership conscious of the need to attain a more progressive society through the advent of modernization, it also made them conscious of the Indian identity, its tradition and culture which they acclaimed to be of continuing significance.

4. Sanskritization and Westernization

One of the early approaches to social change in India was the concept of Sanskritization, which was first used by M.N. Srinivas to explain the process of social mobility within the traditional social structure of India. Srinivas described Sanskritization as a process where individuals from lower castes adopted certain customs and rituals of the upper castes while simultaneously giving up some of their own, in order to elevate their position in the caste hierarchy. For example, they adopted many upper caste ways of dressing, rules of commensality, and many rites and rituals. At the same time, they gave up eating meat, consuming alcohol and many of their own rituals such as animal sacrifice which were looked down upon by the upper castes, particularly the Brahmin castes. By doing so, they intended to gain some upward mobility over a generation or two.

Westernization, on the other hand, is described by Srinivas as the changes brought about in Indian society as a result of colonization, at various levels including technology, ideology and values (Singh 1986). According to him, the colonial era brought with it the values of rationalism and humanitarianism, which were concretized through the new educational, technological and scientific institutions established then. Although westernization was largely ushered in by the upper castes, it had an impact on all castes, thereby bringing about radical changes in the Indian social structure (Deshpande 2004).

5. Little and Great Traditions

The concept of Little Traditions and Great Traditions was given by anthropologist Robert Redfield, and was used by Milton Singer and Mckim Marriot to analyse the process of social change in India. The main ideas used in this approach to study social change are ‘civilization’ and ‘social organization of tradition’ which comprises of both cultural and social structures (Singh 1986). This approach takes the evolutionary approach that the structure of tradition grows in two stages. The first stage is orthogenetic or indigenous evolution, in other words evolution through internal elements. The second stage is through heterogenetic eveolution, i.e., through encounters with external cultures and civilizations. According to this approach, any civilization consists of two kinds of traditions, and the constant interactions between the two.

Great tradition is related to the literate, social elite, the minority who are capable of understanding, analyzing and interpreting social reality. Little traditions, on the other hand, is associated with the so called illiterate, rural peasants and ‘common folk’ of the civilization. Great traditions comprise of a body of collective heritage and knowledge, while Little traditions consist of localized, indigenous heritage and knowledge. The two traditions are not independent of each other. Rather, they each influence and affect the other. The concepts of universalization and parochialization are related to this. Universalization refers to the proccesses through which Little traditions become Great traditions; and parochialization refers to the downward spread of knowledge from Great Traditions to Little Traditions, where universalized ideas trickle down and influence local level practices.

6. Structural changes in India

The processes of modernization lead to certain changes in the already present structures of a society at both micro and macro level. These transformations lead to a reorganization of the whole fabric of social relationships. It also leads to the ‘growth and institutionalization of new roles and group structures’ (Singh 1986). An example of this structural differentiation can be the shift from joint to nuclear families in India. The earlier joint families performed the role of procreation and rearing of new members for a given society, along with performing various roles in other spheres like education, leisure, occupation, etc. On the contrary, nuclear families in industrial societies, which are differentiated from earlier joint or extended families, perform more specialized roles. The functioning of modernization at the macro and the micro levels of society is explained henceforth.

6.1. Changes in the macro level

Modernization led to structural changes in social, economic, political as well as cultural spheres of society. The colonial rule in India contributed to the establishment and growth of the modern bureaucratic structure, following a ‘basic rational framework’, to employ Civil Servants into different ranks. However, during the initial stage of the British rule, there seemed to be a blur between clerical posts and posts requiring greater responsibilities in terms of the pay the post holders used to get. However, by the mid of eighteenth century, greater level of professionalism tended to grow in civil service sectors. Appointments began to take place on the basis of merit rather than on the basis of patronage as practiced during earlier times. There also happened a slow Indianization of the bureaucracy as greater numbers of Indian elites proliferated into the administrative sector. In the post independence period, however, the social background of the new recruits in bureaucracy had changed. Earlier, the recruited ones were mostly from higher income, elite families. But since independence, the class and caste composition has become a little more heterogeneous, though studies have shown that recruits from lower class or caste positions are still few in numbers.

Nevertheless, since independence, there occurred a transfer of power from the hands of English educated, upper class, elite bureaucrats to the ‘regional- populistic type of political elite’ from middle and lower classes, and castes, hailing from rural areas. These newer types of political elites tend to represent indigenous cultures and often lack university education, which most of the bureaucratic elite have.

Consolidation of British rule in India had also led to the formation of the new business elite who were exposed to the technological and scientific advancements, as well as the surge of economic growth, happening in Britain due to the industrial revolution happening over there. Though India, in the past, had flourishing trade linkages with countries of Africa, Middle East, eastern Asian countries (like Malaya, Indonesia, etc), growing contact with the colonizers in fact led to a historic shift from past traditions to a newer kind of capitalist economic growth. Post 1900s, Indian industrial elites started catching up with the British. These business elites who came mostly from mercantile castes, played an important role in the modernization process, and they became active in the nationalist movement also. Thus, their rise did not lead to a radical rupture in the Indian traditional economic scenario. Rather, these business elites seemed to blend the constituents of modernity and tradition. However, gradually, they started resembling the Western industrial elite, and now have major command over the ongoing Indian political situation and exercise control over pressure groups.

With industrialization, there emerged new factories which pulled migrant labour force from rural areas to the cities, which gave rise to the new industrial working class. On one hand, this led to a gradual wearing away of traditional ties, while on the other, this forged newer patterns of social relationships. For example trade unions, which have organizational linkages with each other on a national level, play a major integrative role among workers.

Modernization also established a democratic, populist political structure after Independence. One can see growing participation of the masses by means of caste associations, tribal groups, ethnic communities, etc in the democratic political scenario. There are different pressure groups competing with each other to gain access to power positions. ‘Briefly, the political trends in India since Independence have largely been a series of reconciliations with demands articulated by regional interest groups’. Thus, on one hand, one can see modernist ideas being reflected in terms of practising of ideals like democracy, secularism, etc by the state; at the same time, this political modernization also led to the growing consolidation of traditional institutions like caste associations, ethnic communities, etc in terms of articulating their demands (Singh 1986).

6.2. Changes in the micro level

Right from the early years of sociology, the family and community have been central areas of analysis in the discipline. The family is the primary unit around which society is structured. In Indian society, the importance of the family cannot be overemphasized. Just as other structures have undergone change, so too has the family, in the face of modernizing elements. In traditional society, the family carried out economic, religious, educational and protective functions. In modern society, it’s importance seems to be waning as most of these functions have been taken over as a result of the increased involvement of government, economic enterprises, and education (Hutter 2007). In India, as in many other parts of the world, one of the most visible changes in family structure brought on by modernization is the shift from ‘joint’ or extended families to smaller, nulcear familes.

Traditional agrarian societies across the globe were generally characterized by extended families. These families more often than not were patrifocal and patriarchal, as a result of which the female members of the family had a subordinate position in the family hierarchy (Singh 1986). The head of the family tended to be the eldest male, who was the decision maker. The Marriage in such families was considered a matter of family concern, rather than a personal relationship. Notions of individualism and personal freedom were not present in such societies, as collective interests were given more importance than individual interests. Knowledge was passed on from one generation to another orally, due to which age was an important factor in deciding social status (ibid).

The political, economic and social changes brought on by modernization inevitably led to a change in this traditional family structure. Industralization and urbanization forced the former peasant folk to leave their traditional homes and enter the cities, resulting in the breakdown of the extended family and the formation of the conjugal, nuclear family. Kinship ties became weaker within this form of family, and there was an increased sense of personal freedom. One of the most significant changes brought along with this is the role of women in the families. In the traditional extended family set up, women had almost no autonomy, younger women were controlled by older women and the men of the household. Women’s roles were limited to household labour and caretaking. With the advent of modernization, traditional roles for women, especially with regard to paid labour, are slowly changing as we see women increasingly joining the work force.

The Indian village is a central category in the popular imagining of India, by the Western rulers and the native middle class alike. Infact it is often considered a microcosm reflecting the macrocosm of the Indian nation. One of the salient features of the village in the Indian imagination is the village-identity, the strong sense of cohesion and solidarity amongst members. The traditional power balance always lay with the upper caste, landholding groups. However, since independence, due to the state’s modernization project, the village began to go through a variety of changes, especially in respect to economic institutions. One of the biggest factors of social change in the village has been land reform. Land reforms included redistribution of land, inclusion of land ceilings, and abolishment of intermediaries (Singh 1986).

Although these reforms did not drastically change the traditional social structure, since ownership of land still largely remained with the traditional elites, there was a marked change in power relations. While political power was previously closely tied to ownership of land, the new democratic and legal rights of previously downtrodden groups enabled them to move up the political hierarchy (Singh 1986).

7. Urbanization, Industrialization and Modernization

Modernization is often linked with urbanization and industrialization. Various works in sociology construct binaries such as rural and urban, mechanical and organic solidarity, etc which not simply assumes a kind of transition of society from one phase to another, but also the development of newer forms of moral as well as cultural patterns. In the case of each binary, the former part is associated with tradition, while the latter with modernization.

Modernization in India should be understood in the light of historical factors. The very construction of cities according to caste based hierarchies and thereby determining which site should be allotted to which family was the traditional form of urbanization in pre-colonized India. In this scheme, the king or the priests were allotted the most favourable locality, while the untouchables were restricted to the city’s periphery, far off from the upper castes. Therefore, in the pre-industrial India, it is hardly possible to equate modernization with urbanization. However, when those hierarchical forms of urbanization did start breaking down, the question which arose was , did industrialization actually contribute to the modernization of urbanization?

Studies show that there is no stark tradition- modernity dichotomy, or rural -urban binary, existing in Indian cities. According to Singh, there is a ‘persistence of the traditional patterns in the cities’. On one hand, urbanization in India has a modernizing effect on the cultures in India, and at the same time, it is also inclined towards reinforcing the traditions.

A major population has migrated to the cities in India, since independence. Though, according to Singh, the rate of urbanization is slow, the rate of cultural modernization has not been reduced nevertheless. Urbanization has resulted in increased number of heavy industries, increased capital investment, rising significance of mass media, etc, though, the rate of industrial growth has been less in post independent India. This is why, the relation between urbanization and industrialization has to be carefully scrutinized in the context of modernization. If the term urbanization is used to denote the loss of traditional socio-economic and cultural structures ‘then industrialization does not always contribute to urbanization’1 in India (Singh 1986). Colonized India started expanding with greater heterogeneity of ethnicities, and blurring boundaries of caste based neighbourhoods of the earlier times. With modern means of transportation, monetary transactions, banking, medicine, political culture, etc, the foundation of cultural modernization was established.

8. Communication and Cultural Modernization

According to Yogendra Singh, western contact had also enhanced the medium of communication throughout India by means of which, greater levels of cultural diffusion and modernization started taking place. Introduction of the printing press, telegraph, postal service, railways, etc by the British enhanced the whole transport and communication system, which ultimately increased the pace of modernization in India.

Circulation of newspapers and periodicals in both regional languages as well as English can be observed from different reports during the British rule in India. Growth in postal service system, expansion of roadways, railways, waterways and airways led to the improved contact between regions. This also challenged the foundation of the hierarchy of castes based on purity-pollution norm, since people belonging to different castes had to travel by the same train or bus. However, technological development did not simply bring about modernizing impacts in the Indian scenario, but also, in some cases, aided in reinforcing tradition. For example, better transportation or growing postal services did not simply lead to increased communication among people belonging to different regions, but also aided mobilization of caste associations or activities of other traditional groups. Thus, a newer kind of consciousness started building up among individuals as they tried to identify themselves with these traditional institutions. Thus, in the Indian context, modernization came with a baggage of reiterating traditions (Singh, 1986).

9. Nationalism and Modernization

Nationalism is the awareness of a single nationhood and associated consciousness of a certain political identity. The sociological manifestation of such a consciousness would be the idea of nation-state (ibid).

In the context of the British rule in India, and the modernizing impact it was carrying with it, the political aspect of nationalism is crucial to analyze. Nationalism, in this light, was considered to be essential for any political organization to thrive, for the development of consciousness and the process of bringing about change. Nationalism

1 c. f. Hoselitz, Cf. Bert F. Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth. Illinois, 1960. As cited in Singh, Yogendra.

Modernization of Indian Tradition (A Systemic Study of Social Change). Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 1986. defined, inspired and justified the means and ends of social change while maintaining cohesiveness among people on a national level. It also aided rapid political mobilization of the masses. The Indian National Congress was primarily leading the nationalist movement, and from its inception it took a secular stand. Led by Nehru, it advocated the idea of India as a secular and democratic nation.

Nationalism in India resulted from various economic transformations, as well as the rise of the middle class. However, one of the major grounds on which it was based was to resist colonial rule in the native land. In the process, the nationalist forces identified the need to revive indigenous cultures rooted in traditions. But these indigenous cultures were essentially Hindu cultures, which created increasing communal tensions between Hindu nationalists and Muslims, and ultimately resulted in the partition. The partition had somewhat reversed the process of modernization due to communal tensions and polarization of the two communities (Mehta 1983).

10. Modernization in Education

In pre independent India, modernization occurred in the realms of education or, rather, one can argue that West-influenced education became a key harbinger of modernization. Before the British rule, only the upper castes, especially the ‘twice-borns’, were supposed to be the receivers of education. The subject matter of education was limited to being ‘esoteric and metaphysical’. Thus, the education system was hierarchical, closed and based on ascription of caste status. During the colonial rule, the content of education was radically changed by the then British rulers. English as a language was introduced through Macaulay’s Minutes (1835) to create an educated, English speaking class of people, so that the official work could be assigned to the native population.

However, with modern Western education, came a more liberal and ‘scientific world view’. Ideas of equality, liberty, humanism, etc were introduced. A broad structure of education was set up which could roughly be divided into three major sections: primary education (in vernacular language, with the exception of missionary schools), education in secondary schools, and finally – college and university level education. However, access to this kind of education, especially higher education, was restricted to only a handful few. Thus, modernization through college education never happened at a mass scale. However, education still had been one of the major carriers of modernization in India, which led to the enlightenment process and the growth of the Indian intelligentsia, who not only led ‘movement for Independence’, but, at the same time, fought for socio-cultural reformations (Singh 1986).

Traditionally women were denied the right to education, except those hailing from a privileged background. However, during the end of the nineteenth century, with the drive towards reformation and modernization, the issue of women’s education came to the fore. The debate regarding men and women’s differing curriculum should be scrutinized first. Initially, curricula of women centred only on training them according to their supposed traditional, domestic role, since women were never expected to work outside home. This was the view on women’s education shared by both liberals and social reformers. However, there were differing views also. For example, Menon (1944) argued that the key purpose of education is to encourage critical thoughts. But in most cases, women’s education became a matter of concern only for bringing about reforms in the existing structure, not radically change the structure itself.

There happened differential spread of education among women because of various practises like purdah, early marriage of girls, etc, in different parts of India. However, separate schools for girls came up, women teachers were appointed, and thereby, more and more girls came under the light of education. The role of Christian missionaries and social reformers was also crucial in this regard. Thus social reform and women’s education became two intertwining agendas of the reformers in the colonial period (Chanana 1996).

11. Critiques of Modernization Theory

Some of the important critiques of modernization are – First of all, the whole notion of modernization itself promotes a dichotomy between ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’. The first implies the process of social change that was happening in the Western countries, while the latter indicates social situation in the ‘Third World’. Modernization, therefore, is assumed to be a transition from the latter stage, to the former, under the influence of the West. Thus, modernization theorists ignore the fact that Third World countries could not, or still are in difficulty, to ‘modernize’ themselves as per the standards of the West, because of the long years of exploitation since the era of colonization. The gap between the poor and the rich countries is ever-increasing, which restricts ‘modernization’ in the decolonized nations.

Since the conceptualization itself is an import from the West, the colonial rulers themselves had decided the yardstick of modernization, Indian social scientists have also succumbed to the West imposed hegemonic ideas and misconceptions about the Third World reality. As Kamat (1983) argues, this is ‘clearly an instance of present-day cultural imperialism’. Western indologists tended to ‘prove’ that Indians (and people of other colonized countries) were ‘inferior’ and somewhat at a ‘lower stage of growth’ as compared to the West.

Thus, from its inception, modernization theory has faced severe criticisms because of its lack of historicity, simplistic arguments, lack of criticality and ideological bias. Even recent approaches to modernization can be considered weak because all it has done, to some extent, is shed its emphasis on ‘culturological’ aspects, and move towards a structural-functional approach by looking into historical specificities.

Scholars argue that modernization theory is not universalistic, and in order to pursue an effective understanding of social change one needs to go beyond the dichotomy of tradition and modernity scheme or continuum. This understanding can only be achieved by means of an inductive approach, rather than a deductive, positivist paradigm (Kamat 1983).

12. Summary

This module began with a discussion of what modernization is, the several approaches to understanding it and how it is related to the idea of tradition. It then discussed modernization theory, an umbrella term for various theories and outlooks which sort to understand social change in the developing world. Next, it discusses the history of modernization in India, and how this modernization project which was introduced in the colonial era, was taken forward by the Indian national leaders with the aim of bringing about progressive social change in the Indian society. The subsequent section deals with some of the approaches used in analysing social change in the traditional structures such as Sanskritization, Westernization and Little and Great traditions. This is followed by a discussion on the impact of these modernization processes on both macro and micro social structures. Finally, it considers some critiques of modernization theory, the main criticism being the fact that it takes for granted a distinct dichotomy between tradition and modernity as two mutually exclusive categories. It questions whether this current conceptualization of modernization is adequate or whether we need to go beyond the current binary model of tradition and modernity in order to better understand the complexities involved in social change.

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