22 Marriage as a Social Institution – Changing Nature and Emerging Trends

Sumati Unkule

Table of Contents:

1.  Introduction

2.  Social Institution

3.  Marriage as a Social Institution

4.  Theoretical Frameworks

5.  Sociological Studies on Marriage in India

6.  Forms of Marriage in Contemporary India

7.  Changing Nature of Marriage in Contemporary India

8.  Challenges to the Institution of Marriage

9.  Summary

1. Introduction

This module seeks to understand and anlayse the contemporary social institution of marriage from a sociological perspective. Never prior to this, has the institution of marriage been so diverse, with so many emerging trends, and facing myriad challenges. This module will try to understand the changing nature and emerging trends of marriage as a social institution. The module situates this debate in the larger context of globalization, and neoliberalism. Lastly, it will study the challenges facing this institution.

Let us begin by understanding the concept of social institution.

2. Social Institution: Meaning

In common parlance, the word institution is used to signify a building, a group of people or an organization. In sociology, the concept of institution is different from this common usage. In sociology, an institution is a system of organizing social relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society. They are the structured processes through which people carry on their activities. (Horton and Hunt, 2004) According to Horton and Hunt, an institution is a system of norms to achieve some goal or activity that people feel is important, or, more formally, an organized cluster of folkways and mores centered on a major human activity. Sumner (1906) defines institution as something which consists of a concept (idea, notion, doctrine or interest) and a structure.

Institutions have emerged gradually over the years as products of people living together. Earlier when people started living in groups, they developed certain patterns in their day to day life to meet their daily needs. Slowly these patterns were accepted by large number of people and received social sanctions. Eventually, rules were established and these rules were codified into laws. These practices continue to develop and change; at the same time institutions impose constraints on individuals.

In this module we are going to study the social institution of marriage.

3. Marriage as a social Institution

Marriage is an institution that has had a very long history. The works of sociologists like Edward Westermarck, ‘The History of Human Marriage’ (1891), and historians like V.K. Rajwade, ‘The History of Marriage in India’ (1976), are some attempts to record the history of marriage as a social institution.

Marriage initiates a man and a woman into family life. Largely considered as a stable relation, it permits a man and a woman to establish sexual relations and have children. Like all other institutions, the institution of marriage too has slowly emerged into its present form. In every society, form, nature, and aim of marriage are different. In almost all societies one or the other form of marriage exists. In India, marriage remains an important rite of passage in an individual’s life.

Definition

Edward Westermarck in his well‐known book ‘The History of Human Marriage’ (1891) defines marriage as a more or less durable connection between male and female, lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring.

Malinowski defines marriage as a contract for the production and maintenance of children. Robert O’ Blood (1960) states marriage is perceived by sociologists as a system of roles of a man and a woman whose union has been given social sanction as husband and wife. The equilibrium of the system requires adjustment between the two partners so that the role enactment of one (partner) corresponds to the role expectations of the other.

4. Theoretical Framework

Most of the definitions above define marriage as an institution that contributes to the smooth functioning of a society. They study marriage and the important role it plays in the society at large i.e. they study marriage from a functionalist framework. The Functionalist approach stresses the importance of functions of marriage as an institution for the society as a whole. They study how marriage as an institution is related to other parts of society, and the way in which it contributes to the well being of a society.

Structural‐Functionalists study marriage from a macro perspective. This lets them focus on the most important functions that affect nearly every marriage and not on the less common functions that affect few marriages. According to this perspective marriage will serve the needs of society, of producing children, regulating the relation between the sexes, both the partners benefit from the gendered division of labour, etc.

Studies like Marriage and Family in Mysore (1942), Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (1952) by M.N. Srinivas, Kinship Organization in India (1953) by Irawati Karve, are some examples of studies carried out from structural functional perspectives. Many other scholars like K.C.Kapadia (1966,1972), Shah Vimal (1975), Madan (1975), too have studied the institution from this perspective. Anthropologists like Robert H. Lowie, George Murdock and Edward Westermarck emphasize the role of social sanction in the union and the way this sanction is accomplished by different rituals and ceremonies. Sociologist like Blood, Lantz and Snyder, Bowman, Babar, Burgess and others view it as a system of roles and as involving primary relationships. (Ahuja Ram, 1993) However, these studies did not look into power relations within the family, and patriarchy. They focused on the functions of marriage for society at large.

Some studies on marriage try to understand the source of conflict in any marriage. Conflict is an integral part of any marriage. The Conflict or Marxist perspective studies the differences in people, and the disputes that are caused by this. Conflict theorists also study marriage from a macro perspective. In most of the marriages throughout the world, husbands have more power than the wives, and wives have resented it. This creates conflict because the men are trying to maintain their power and women are attempting to gain more power. This results in the conflicts in marriage. Marxists analyze the influence of class on family life, especially on socialization.

According to Palriwala and Kaur (2014), understanding contemporary marriage, it is necessary to understand a political and cultural economy of marriage. Studies by Amali Philips (2014), Priti Ramamurty (2014), A. Dharmalingam (1994) are some examples. Murray Straus’s study (1975) on husband to wife power score, William Goode’s study on relationship between family structure and industrialization are some studies studied from the Marxist perspective.

Studies from the Feminist Perspective study how marriage remains the main site of women’s oppression. It remains a site where there is production and reproduction of gender hierarchies. It leaves women exploited and powerless. Many feminist thinkers argue that women do not benefit from marriage, and it is inherently negative for women. Studies by feminist scholars like Das (1975), Dube (1986), Jeffrey and Jeffrey (1996), Parliwala (1991) use the feminist perspective to analyze the institution of marriage.

Ramaswamy Periyar’s idea of ‘the Self‐Respect Marriage’ is interpreted by many as a Non Brahminical Perspective. According to R. Periyar himself respect in a marriage is neither traditional, nor sacramental. Self‐Respect Marriage not only recognizes the equality of men and women, it also helps the removal of the Caste System. He put forth one of the most sophisticated theories of gender. According to him, marriage regulates and disciplines women’s familial and reproductive labour even as it actively denies their desires and rights to a self respecting life of their choice (V.Geetha, 2006).

5. Sociological Studies on Marriage in India

Various scholars have studied marriage as a social institution in India through different theoretical frameworks. Various studies are carried out in India regarding marriages on themes like mate selection, attitudinal studies, age at marriage, perceptions to divorce, inter‐ caste, inter‐religious marriage, etc. Kannan (1975), Kapadia (1972), K.T. Merchant (1935), studied aspects related to age at marriage studies, Kumari Pratima, 1988, Rao and Rao (1982) Ramanamma (1979) studied attitudes towards various aspects of marriage while J.N. Choudhry (1977, 1982), Y.B. Damle, (1964‐65), Fonseca (1962) and others have studied divorce related aspects of marriage. Few studies were carried out on themes of inter‐caste, inter‐religious marriages by Shah A.M. (1998), Usha Bambawale (1982), Ansari and Anjum (2014).

According to Patricia Uberio (1993), the shifts from structural functional (Srinivas 1952; Karve 1953) to structural (Dumont 1957, 1966; Madan 1975), and subsequently to cultural (Fruzzetti 1982; Inden and Nicholas 2005; Das 1976) frameworks led to new analytical insights.

Recently there has been growing studies on various aspects of marriage in the context of globalization. Post globalized India has lead to various changes in every aspect of the institution of marriage and new trends are visible. Transnational migrations and marriage, honour killings, shifts in conceptualization of marriage, change in mate selection process, kinship support in changing contexts, and role of technology are some of the emerging themes in sociology of marriage.

6. Forms of Marriage in Contemporary India

Monogamy remains the dominant form of marriage in contemporary India. Under monogamy, one man marries one woman at a time. According to B. Malinowiski, monogamy is, has been, and will remain the only true type of marriage.

Monogamy remains most dominant form in many societies because, according to Marxist, when males realized their role in reproduction, and with the gradual control over property they sought means to ensure that the property stayed with them and passed on to their children. Monogamy became their instrument to ensure this. It was then that free sexual relations were replaced with monogamy. Families became monogamous, male dominated and patriarchal as society became capitalist.

Though monogamy dominates, there are other forms of marriage like polyandry (one woman is a wife to more than one man at the same time), and polygyny (one man is husband of more than one woman at the same time).

In India, as in all other societies, there are elaborate rules laid down for mate selection. Endogamy (partners is to be selected within certain groups only) and exogamy (partner is to be selected outside certain groups) remains one of the major guiding rules for mate selection even today. Endogamy and exogamy are not opposite to each other but they supplement each other.

Caste endogamy is largely followed in contemporary India. However, there have always been cases reported of inter caste marriage i.e. marriage of people belonging to different caste as there are references to hypergamy or anuloma (marriage of a daughter in the superior caste or higher varna ) and hypogamy or pratiloma (marriage between male of lower varna or caste and a female of higher varna type of marriages).

The 1954 Special Marriage Act, legalizes inter caste marriages in India. Largely perceived as modern phenomenon, there are very few inter caste marriages taking place. Rather, in the post globalized era many such marriages are the target of community, and incidents of violence and honour killings are rampant.

Why do inter caste marriages face such reactions? Caste remains the system on which the whole edifice of Hindu religion depends. If the caste system does not remain intact, the existence of the Hindu religion itself is threatened. Therefore it is important that only endogamous marriages are practiced. Dr. Ambedkar has rightly pointed out that, “Women are the gateway to the caste system.” Existence and purity of any caste depends on the women in that community i.e., upon the reproductive powers of women. Thus, there is increasing dissent and violence against the inter caste marriages taking place in India today.

Another endogamous norm in mate selection is that of a religion. Though there have always been some incidents of inter religious marriages in India, yet they are miniscule in number. Though the Special Marriage Act (1954) allows a man and woman belonging to different religions to marry and to retain their own religion even after marriage, yet we find most of the women in such marriages convert to the religion of her husband. In spite of having legal sanctions to such marriages, in practice such married couples are socially ostracized, left with no family support and at times killed by the family or society members at large.

The communalists and fundamentalists perceive inter‐religious marriages as a threat for their survival. To combat this, they follow a multi‐thronged policy to enforce endogamous marriages. They follow various tactics right from ideologically insisting on endogamous marriages to violently coercing them. A pamphlet distributed by Babu Bajrangi’s Navchetan Trust, a communal organization in Gujarat, which calls itself a ‘social work organization’, stated, ‘If you rescue one girl, it is the same as saving 100 cows. One daughter equals 100 holy cows’. In the era of globalization, when a sense of rootlessness and alienation is becoming more severe, violence over the issues of religion and identities are becoming more acute. Thus, we also see, this ‘modern’ phenomenon of globalization has pre modern implications for women as their sexuality is being redefined especially through the institution of marriage.

Another form of relationships that are increasingly becoming popular, especially in metropolitian cities in India is live in relationships. These relations mean living together and establishing a sexual relationship without marriage. It has legal acceptance though not social acceptance on a wider scale. Though live in relationships are not new in our society, now larger number of people are talking openly about them. The practices like ‘maitri karars’ and ‘gandharva vivaha’ in ancient India can be viewed as similar to this.

Live in relationships in their present form have largely been a post globalization phenomenon. Globalization has stressed all relationships. The earlier dominant values in marriages like loyalty, duty, docility, etc have been replaced with companionship, equality, compatibility. Most of the IT professionals prefer to have a live‐in relationship before getting married. Long working hours, night shifts, stressful work places, and no social life are some of the reasons for this trend.

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 has recognised “relationship in the nature of marriage” and protects female partners from domestic violence. Such partners can claim monetary and other reliefs under the Act. The Supreme Court has recently given a judgment where if a man and woman ‘lived like husband and wife’ for a long period and had children, the judiciary would presume that the two were married. The children born out of such relationship are legitimate.

There is an increasing trend of youngsters in urban areas who opt for live in relationship. It is largely perceived as an alternative to marriage.

Same‐sex marriages are not legal in India. Yet, we see many homosexual men and women now live in stable relationships. Such relations are based on mutual trust and friendship. There are more and more people are coming out in the open and talking about their relationship.

Another form of marriage and families we see in urban India are the reconstituted families. The term reconstituted family refers to a family in which at least one of the adults has children from a previous marriage or relationship. They are also referred to as stepfamilies. (Giddens, 2005). With increase in the rate of divorce, less stigma attached to such marriages and an increasing number of people remarrying, such type of families is growing in India.

7. Changing Nature of Marriage in Contemporary India

The social institution of marriage serves as a barometer to understand the stage of ‘development’ of society. The Indian marriage scenario today, once again demonstrates that Indian society has changed only superficially but deep down, it is largely the same closed, conservative, caste‐based society. However, we discern certain trends in the changing nature of marriage in contemporary India at large.

Firstly, there are discernable changes in the aim of marriage. In the Hindu religion, marriage was considered as a sacrament, to beget a progeny, especially a son. There are many references in Hindu religious books that extol the importance of a son which will pave way of parents to heaven. In Christian and Muslim religions too marriage had a religious basis, the main objective of which was social sanction to sexual relations and to beget children.

However, in the contemporary context, many couples don’t marry for progeny but for companionship. Rather, there are increasing numbers of couples who want to remain voluntarily childless. In the context of globalization, the significance of the religious aspect of marriage is considered secondary or rather insignificant with growing exposure to varied ideas.

Secondly, significant change is seen in the process of mate selection. Even in today’s Indian society, parents choosing mates for their children are a norm. Almost 90 per cent of marriages in India remain arranged (Mullatti, 1995). Though there are increasing cases where youngsters choose their own partners, they remain negligible in numbers. These days there is an increasing trend to choose spouses by consulting parents thus giving it an element of modernity.

The parents select mates for their children on the basis of family status, culture, caste, dowry while children give importance to education, character, and physical appearance. Recently, there is also an increasing rise in the trend of matchmaking through internet websites. In a study ‘Surfing for Spouses Marriage Websites and the ‘New’ Indian Marriage?’, Ravinder Kaur (2013) observes that there is an increasing use of the internet for matchmaking as it expands the horizon over which brides and grooms can be surfed for. She also states that though the internet, is an aspect of ‘modernity’ (as it expands choice and possibilities and overcomes barriers of geography and physical location), this modernity does not encompass seeking marriage partners across traditional criteria of caste, class, religion and region.

Thirdly, the Indian Parliament has raised the age of marriage to a minimum of 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys. Yet according to the recent UNICEF’s data 47 per cent of girls in India get married before 18 years of age. The various sociological studies conducted in the last few decades have revealed that the trend in age of marriage from 1930 onward has shown a continuous rise. Realization of dysfunctional aspects of child marriage, spread of education especially among females, freedom of mate selection, desire to control size of family and change in object of marriage from dharma to companionship are some of the causes responsible for this trend.

Among urban areas, with the increasing number of women getting higher education and being economically independent, there is an increasing trend to have late marriages. Presently there is a debate on increasing the marriageable age of girls to 21 years.

Fourthly, stability of marriage cannot be taken for granted. With increasing number of women getting higher education and being economically independent, they don’t put up with violence and abuse in relationship. As a result, there is an increasing trend of divorce. According to 2012 statistics, 43,000 divorces were taken across the country. 20,000 cases were from Maharashtra. This can also be cited as one of the reasons for increasing number of people opting for Live in relationships rather than entering into marriage.

8. Challenges to the Institution of Marriage

The changing nature of the institution of marriage has posed several challenges to its existence. The LPG policies though considered as economic phenomenon have various socio‐ cultural implications in the lives of individuals.

With the LPG policies, and GOI withdrawing from its responsibilities, we see shrinking of formal workplace. This has led to a large number of men and women becoming a part of the informal sector. Informal labour is a labour which usually works on contract with long working hours. They do not get other labour benefits and are extremely underpaid. Thus, having no social security other than a contract job this puts severe stress on family and marriage at large.

Women are now increasingly participating in the job market. They too form a part of informal labour. However, though women work ‘outside’, their roles and responsibilities within the home do not undergo any change. As a result, they work in ‘double shifts’ i.e. both inside and outside the home. This adds to the stress in marriage as men do not contribute to the household work. As women are becoming increasingly economically independent, they do not suffer unjust treatment meted out to them from their in‐laws.

Disintegration of joint family to nuclear family forces the couple to rely on other specialized agencies in day to day work or on friends and extended family. Presently there are specialized agencies like day care centers for children and old, activity classes, counselors, which aids couples for smooth functioning of day to day affairs. It should be noted that there are increasing number of baby crèches that are providing 24 hours service, which is in response to working women who work in shifts at call centers or MNCs.

Marital counselors are increasingly playing a crucial role in sustaining marriages these days. Earlier parents and relatives played a crucial role in case of marital crisis but in the last three decades the nature of marriage has undergone so many changes that they are unable to grasp the complexity of contemporary marriage. As a result a specialized professional counselor is needed.

9. Summary

The above sections deal with sociological concept of social institution and marriage as a social institution in India. It seeks to understand and analyze the contemporary social institution of marriage, diversity of marriage in contemporary India and its changing nature. Lastly, it discusses the challenges faced by marriage as a social institution in contemporary India.

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