12 Research Methods 2: Interviews

Ananda Mohan Kar

Objective

In this module you will learn about the nature, types and uses of different types of interview method for sociological research. At the end are given some digital resources for use as also a brief bibliography pertaining to different types of interview.

Introduction

In research methodology, the term ‘interview,’ means a method of data collection. In case of interview, the researcher directly asks questions to the respondents and the respondents give the researcher the answers. Thus, through the interaction, the researcher tries to gather the necessary information for the research.

Interview method is used when the researcher and the respondent can understand each other’s language. That apart, interview method can be used only when the respondents are available and willing to talk to the researcher. One important point is that interview method can be used for different types of research – cross sectional research, longitudinal research, experimental research and case study. Another important point is that interview can be utilized to gather qualitative as well as quantitative data.

Learning Outcome

This module would acquaint you with the types of interview methods used in sociological research. The module discusses the advantages of each type of interview method, their application during research and the limitations associated with each type.

Interview and Self-administered Questionnaire

Before conducting interview, the researcher prepares a list of questions to be asked to the respondents and uses the list at the time of interviewing. This list is called interview schedule. Interview schedule is different from a self-administered questionnaire in the following ways:

1) The questionnaire too is a set of questions prepared by the researcher to gather information from the respondents. But in case of the questionnaire, the respondents are requested to write the answers and give it back to the researcher. At the time of filling up the questionnaire, usually the researcher remains absent and there is no scope for intervention. In case of Interview schedule, the interviewer asks the questions and writes the answers. There is another difference between self-administered questionnaire and interview. In case of self-administered questionnaire, the respondents can see the questions. But they usually do not see the questions during interview. The presence of the interviewer has advantages as well as limitations. The interviewer may motivate the respondents to participate in the interview and clarify the questions, if necessary. But on the other hand, presence of the interviewer may influence respondents and there might be unwanted interviewer effects, mainly at the time of discussing sensitive issues. Leeuw has rightly commented, ‘Interviewers are assets and liabilities at the same time’ (Leeuw 2008: 314).

Types of Interview

On the basis of the presence of the interviewer and the respondent in the same spot, the interview can be classified into two types – face-to-face interview and telephone interview. On the other hand, on the basis of the nature of the questions in the interview schedule, interview method can be classified into three categories – structured interview, unstructured interview, semi-structured interview.

5.1. Face-to-face interview and Telephone Interview

When the researcher and the respondent are present in the same location, they face each other, the interview is called face-to-face interview. But in some cases the researcher and the respondents are separated by the distance and the researcher uses telephone for communication. It is called telephone interview (advantages and disadvantages of these two types are discussed later). Usually, at the time of face-to-face or telephone interview, an interviewer asks questions to one respondent at a time. But in case of focus group interview, more than one respondent – usually a group consisting of a few persons – are interviewed at the same time.

5.2. Structured Interview

In case of structured interview, different optional answers are included in the interview schedule and they are presented before the respondents. The respondents are requested to choose which they think most appropriate. This type of question is also called closed-ended question. Generally the researcher asks only those questions that are included in the interview schedule. Questions are asked in the order in which they are arranged. Thus, there is very little scope for flexibility to make alterations during the course of interview. Since structured interview lists specific questions to be asked of respondents, the comparability of questions asked and the responses received is easier compared to unstructured interview. Moreover, the probable answers are already categorized and as a result it is easier to analyse the responses. The structured interviews are very useful for market survey – when a large number of respondents are to be covered by asking limited number of questions within a very short time period.

5.3. Qualitative Interview

In case of unstructured interview the optional answers are not suggested and the respondents are expected to answer and explain in their own words. This type of question is called open ended question. The open-ended questions provide in-depth information. They give the respondents the chance to express themselves freely. But in the absence of a standardized approach, analysis of open-ended questions is difficult.

The approach of unstructured interview is flexible and the order of the questions can be altered if needed. The interviewer is free to ask questions that are relevant but not included in the interview schedule. Some authors refer the unstructured in-depth interview as qualitative interview.

Through qualitative interview it is possible to explore suppressed views and sensitive issues can be broached. The data generated would reflect the complexity of the situation (Byrne 2004: 211). The objective of the qualitative interview, as Kvale points out, is to understand the meaning of the themes associated with the life world of the respondent (1996: 29-36). For that purpose, interview in qualitative research is ‘perceived as being closer to a conversation than to a question-and-answer session (Baker, 1999: 247). The intention here is to look for qualitative description as well as to understand the meaning from the perspective of the interviewee.

Qualitative interview method is also very popular and widely used for feminist research because of its unstructured nature. Qualitative interview is also used for collecting data regarding life history and of oral history. One must note that collecting data for life history, as well as for oral history, require flexible research approach and it may be necessary to interview a single respondent several times for a research project.

5.4. Semi-Structured Interview

There is a third type of interview which can be called semi-structured interview. This type of interview schedule includes both closed as well as open ended questions. Sometimes the respondents are given the opportunity to give their own answer when they do not find any of the optional answer suitable. The interviewer may drop a few questions if they appear to be irrelevant at the time of the interview. The order of the questions too could de changed to some extent and new questions could be asked. In case of semi-structured interview, interviewer ‘usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies’ (Bryman 2009: 196).

Self Check Exercise 1:

Mention a research situation which is suitable for the use of structured interview?

The structured interviews are very useful for opinion poll – when a large number of respondents are to be covered by asking limited number of questions within a very short time period.

Why do the researchers use qualitative interview for studying life history?

Life history deals with the life of a man, or a woman. Through the experience of an individual, the researcher tries to understand the issues like social relationship, social structure, social change etc. For example, the life history of a cancer patient can be helpful to understand the influence of disease on social relationship. The experience of social life of a person is significant for sociological research. The recording of personal narratives helps the researcher to understand how the social world is viewed by an individual, how a person responds to different social situations etc. Here the objective is to understand the experience of a person in details and therefore flexible unstructured approach is necessary. It is not possible to construct structured interview schedule, consisting of closed questions offering limited optional answer, because the interviewer is not aware of the personal experience of the respondent in details. Therefore, qualitative interview method is used for life history study.

Why should a researcher use qualitative research for collecting oral history?

Oral history focuses on the events or on the situations that had appeared in the past. Here the researcher is concerned about the past incidents, or about the earlier cultural practices or norms, or stories that have been passed from generation to generation. Such stories remained generally unnoticed. The researcher also makes search for the stories that are shared by the local people of a particular place but that are yet to be documented. The stories could be related to a place, a family, a monument, an individual, an institution, a community, an event etc. Since oral histories are not recorded information, it remains difficult to be certain about their authenticity. The chance of distortion is always there. However, oral history contain valuable information to get a sense of the past social situation, of the factors that shaped the attitude of the people, the social consequence of a past event, the situation that people had to go through and their response etc. For example, the stories of common people living in the border area at the time of a war can help to understand how a war affects social life. Here, the interviewer wants to collect the stories of the past in detail. One cannot construct structured interview schedule, consisting of closed questions offering limited optional answer, for gathering data regarding oral history. So questions with limited answers can neither be constructed nor can they be of any use. Only the qualitative interview method, for its flexible nature, would be helpful for collecting oral history.

Why do the feminist researchers prefer qualitative interview?

The qualitative interview method is very popular for feminist research because of its unstructured nature. The flexibility in approach allows the respondent to share her feeling the way she likes. The researcher comes close to the respondent, which helps to develop trust between both sides and encourages the respondent to speak freely. In case of in-depth interview, the researcher does not impose own opinion upon the respondent by providing a few predetermined optional answers. Thus, the researcher can collect data that helps to see the issues from the perspective of those being studied.

Conducting Interview

An interviewer should do thorough homework before going out for interviewing people.

First of all, the researcher should try to become familiar with the issues related to the research topic. For that purpose, the researcher should go through relevant books, journals, research reports etc. Consultation with the experts, and interaction with those who know those issues quite well, would be useful. The knowledge gained would help the researcher to prepare the interview schedule.

At the time of preparing an interview schedule, the researcher should be careful about the choice of words and the construction of the sentences. The meanings of the questions should be clear so that the respondents can understand them properly, without much difficulty.

That apart, the questions should be carefully arranged in a logical order. The easier questions should be in the earlier parts of the schedule whereas the difficult or the sensitive ones might be placed in the later part of the list.

Another important point is that the researcher should try to avoid asking leading question. The researcher should not be biased and should not influence the answers of the respondents by making comments or by quoting somebody. The respondent should not be pushed to give a particular kind of answer.

In case of constructing structured interview schedule, it is desirable that the interview schedule should be short and the researcher needs to be careful while listing optional answers. The answers that are most likely to come from the respondents should find their place in the interview schedule.

When the interview schedule is prepared, it is advisable to conduct a pilot study (read Module RMS 6, for details) to get a sense about the shortcomings of the set of questions. The researcher should ask the questions to some respondents and make necessary corrections in the interview schedule on the basis of the feedback received. It might be necessary to change a few words that seem to be inappropriate, to drop a few questions that may not be relevant, to add a few new questions that were not included earlier, or to make changes in the optional answers in case of structured interview. It might also be needed to rearrange the questions in a new order that would be more comfortable for the researcher as well as for the respondent. After necessary modification, the schedule is ready for use.

But, before beginning interviewing the respondents, the researcher should be very careful about selecting his sample (read Module RMS 17, 18 & 19, for details).

In case of interview method, particularly for qualitative interview, the quality of the data largely depends upon the quality of the interaction and upon the skill of the interviewer. So the role of the interviewer is very crucial. Before the start of the interview, the interviewer should decide whether the situation is right for interview and both sides can talk without much hesitation. One important point is that to make the interview successful, the interviewer should use common sense to adjust to the situation.

While going out for interview, the interviewer should remember that an unwilling person does not give proper replies to questions. Therefore, before interview begins, one important task of the researcher is to establish rapport with the respondent. The researcher should give his or her introduction and clearly state the objectives. If any respondent asks any question about the purpose of the research, the question should be politely addressed. The researcher, depending on the situation and on the sensitivity of the topic, should assure the respondents that their identity would not be disclosed. That step is essential to give confidence to the respondents so that they can express their views without any fear. The feminists believe in ‘non-hierarchical relations’ during interviewing and they give lots of emphasis on empathy, on rapport and on reciprocity (Doucet and Mauthner 2008: 332-4).

At the time of asking the questions, the interviewer should not forget the theme of the research.

The interviewer should always show respect to the respondents and the respondents should be given adequate time to understand the questions and to answer them. If the answer seems to be incomplete, a probe, or a request for elaboration might be helpful (Babbie 2004: 226).

That apart, attempts should be made for exact recording of the responses. So the researcher should also concentrate in writing down the answers in short for elaboration later. While writing down the answers during the interview, time must not be wasted and eye to eye contact with the respondent must not be lost. Additionally, the language used by the respondent should not be changed; the words should not be twisted. If the respondent agrees, the interviewer can use a recording device to record the interview. When the interview is over, the respondent should be thanked for cooperating with the interviewer/team.

For successful interview, the interviewer should remember one more point. The personal characteristics of an interviewer have the potential to affect the interview. So the interviewer should remain alert to minimize the impact of his/her personal characteristics (Baker 2004: 224).

After recording, it is necessary to transcribe the interview before analysing the data. Byrne (2004: 221-2) has listed several ways to analyse interviews. These are: qualitative thematic analysis, discourse analysis, narrative analysis or interpretative phenomenological analysis, content analysis or linguistic analysis or conversation analysis. In qualitative thematic analysis, the interview is seen as a ‘resource’ – as a report of experience. It can be a part of the project to generate grounded theory. On the other hand, discourse analysis views the interviews as topic, as ‘events in their own right so that they becomes occasions that are observed’ (Ibid. 222).

Computer Assisted Telephone Interview

For conducting survey, Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI) has become quite popular. CATI system has several advantages. The system provides clear instructions to the interviewers, randomly selects the number (respondents) and dials them automatically, helps the interviewer by displaying interview schedule and the optional answers in the computer screen. The system also gives the opportunity for electronic recording of the responses given by the respondents. Thus, immediate data entry into the computer helps to save time for the researcher. So, CATI system is helpful for minimizing time and it is not expensive. The computer aggregates the responses and gives a clear idea about the progress of the research (Baker 1999: 235).

Advantages of Interview

In the beginning of the discussion, we have discussed the situations where interview method can be applied by the researcher. In case of social science research, interview method is often used because it has several advantages.

While using interview, the researcher asks questions directly to the respondents. If a respondent fails to understand the question, the researcher can clarify it so that the respondent can comprehend the question properly and give appropriate answer.

On the other hand if the researcher is not convinced with the answer, he or she can ask for clarification. The respondent might be requested to elaborate his point of view. So the researcher has the opportunity to clear the doubts.

Moreover, the researcher can see the body language of the respondent and so it is possible to make a guess whether the respondent is trying to hide something or not. If needed, the researcher can ask further questions.

All these advantages are absent at the time of using questionnaire.

Limitations of Interview

Every method of data collection has its strength and limitation and the interview method is no exception.

Interview method has several disadvantages:

Interview method, as discussed earlier, is not very effective for data collection when language barrier exists between the researcher and the respondent. Dependence on the interpreter may lead to error.

Often it is very difficult to have complete control over the environment where the interview is conducted. Presence of relatives or known persons in the area either allows the others to intervene or make the interviewee sensitive to express fully and truly.

A large number of people, who are very busy, are often not accessible for interviewing. Availability of respondents is a major condition for the success of interview.

Many people hesitate to talk about the sensitive issues, either due to fear or they feel uncomfortable. So they try to avoid the interviewer or try to evade questions.

In case of telephone interview, some people do not want to answer questions asked by an unknown person who is not even visible. The respondents may also suspect that the answers would be recorded without their approval and the statements may be misused in future. As a result they may land into uncomfortable situation.

In most of the cases, the researcher does not know the respondents personally. Therefore, it is quite difficult to detect the wrong answers, if any, given by the respondents. In case of telephone interview, it is not even possible to see the body language of the respondent at the time of answering the questions.

Sometimes the respondents get influenced by the personality, by the behaviour and by the appearance of the interviewer. In such a situation, the respondent may not give the proper answer.

One major challenge for the interviewer is to record the interview. If the interview schedule is long and the respondent does not give consent for using recording instrument, the recording becomes really difficult.

Finally, unless well trained, it is difficult to conduct qualitative interview.

While considering the advantages and applicability of any method of data collection, it is necessary to take a look at the financial cost and time required for using the method. Interview method can be cheap if the number of respondents is not too large and the respondents live in the same geographical area. This is easily understandable as the financial cost to carry out interview would be small if the travel cost to reach the respondents is less in that case. On the contrary, if the respondents are spread over a large geographical area, the travel cost of the respondent is expected to be higher. In that case, using telephonic interview or questionnaire may be more cost effective.

Similarly, as far as time requirement is concerned, the interview method may take more time compared to the questionnaire. In face-to-face interview, even in case of telephonic interview, the researcher is able to ask questions only to one respondent at a time. Therefore, it may take longer time if a large number of respondents are to be covered.

But, one must remember that time requirement depends on the number of questions to be asked and on the nature of the interview schedule. Usually structured interview and focus group interview take lesser time compared to unstructured interview. A social scientist should note that the method of data collection and the corresponding research strategy should be formulated after taking into account the nature of the research topic.

Self-check Exercise- 2

How should the interviewer behave at the time of interviewing a respondent?

At the time of interviewing, the researcher should listen carefully and take notes. If the respondent fails to understand a question properly, the interviewer should explain the question without losing patience. Patience is very much needed for the success of in-depth unstructured qualitative interview. A respondent may say a lot of things in the course of the interview and some of the remarks may appear irrelevant or trivial. The researcher should not show any sign of impatience, the respondent should be given full opportunity to narrate, but the researcher should remain alert that the interview does not get deviated from the research topic. The respondent should never be shown disrespect at any stage and he/she should be given the impression that the opinion of the respondent is highly valuable. Equally important is to show respect to the privacy of the respondent. Consent should be sought from the respondent before using any recording instrument.

What are the disadvantages of telephone interview? The telephone interview has several disadvantages:

1) Some people do not like to take part in telephone interview because they do not want to answer questions asked by an interviewer who is unknown and not even visible.

2) Some respondents suspect that the answers would be recorded without their consent and there is a chance that their statements may be misused later. So they want to avoid telephone interview.

3) Since the interviewer does not know the respondents personally, it is not easy to be sure whether the researcher is giving correct answer or not. During telephone interview, it is not even possible to see the body language of the respondent.

Focus Group Interview/Discussion

In recent time focus group interview or focus group discussion (FDG) has become very popular among the social scientists. Even though FGD is a form of ‘group interview’, the difference between the focus group method and the group interview is by no means clear and the two are frequently employed interchangeably. In focus group interview, the researcher interviews a group of respondents at the same time. Focus groups typically emphasize a specific theme that is explored in depth in an unstructured setting as compared to any formal individual interview. Alan Bryman (2009: 346) argues that the focus group is a form of group interview in which a) there are several participants in addition to the moderator/facilitator, b) there is emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly/tightly defined topic, c) the accent is upon interaction within the group, and d) joint construction of meaning as individuals discuss a certain issue as members of a group, rather than simply as individuals. In other words, FGD allows the participants to respond to each other’s views to build up a view out of interaction within the group.

The questions are focused on the issue that the researcher wishes to study. Gradually, the interviewing exercise turns into a discussion, around the research topic, among the participants. Focus group interview is often used for market research. A group of consumers are asked to give opinion about a product (Babbie 2004: 302). That apart, this method has relevance for other types of research as well. Focus group interviews are helpful for studying minority communities, for feminist research, for ethnographic research and for organizational research (Smithson 2008: 265-7).

10.1. Conducting Focus Group Interview

For focus group interview, just like the face-to-face interview, the researcher needs to get familiar with the research issues by consulting relevant literature, by talking to the experts in the field and by interacting with those who know such issues well. Thereafter, it is necessary to construct the relevant questions.

The next task is to form the groups. The size of the group may vary depending on the nature of the research topic or on the availability of the respondents. However, the size of the group should be manageable by the researcher and every participant should get adequate chance to speak. It is a normal practice to restrict the number to 10. It is easy to conduct FGD if the group is consisting of 6 to 8 members.

Other than the size, the composition of the group is important too. In some cases, homogeneous groups may be preferable. The participants will feel comfortable in the presence of their own community members, and in the absence of the members of the other community. But one must note that when the groups are formed with the people belonging to different communities, there is a greater chance of differences of opinion. The researcher may gain from a debate that raises several issues. Bu s/he should different groups should be called for discussion separately.

While planning focus group interview, the researcher must remember two more tasks – moderation of the discussion and the recording of the proceedings. The researcher may moderate and ask the question but in that case it may be difficult to observe and note the behaviour of all the members. There is another option. The researcher may explain the purpose of the research in the beginning of the proceedings and then a request could be made to one of the members to moderate. It has a few advantages. Firstly, the researcher would be free to observe everyone. Secondly, since the moderator is known the participants, therefore, they would feel more comfortable to discuss. But if the moderator is biased, it could have negative impact on data collection.

Both the researcher and the moderator should remember that the discussion should be focused on the identified themes. According to Tonkins (2008: 228), in order to focus on the topic, the researcher might use: a fixed schedule of questions, a topic guide of themes for discussion, a group exercise and visual cues (such as video clips, advertisements, press reports or photographs).

Another issue is recording. It is difficult to write down the opinions expressed by the participants during discussion. For that reason, the use of some kind of electronic recording device is desirable. But use of any such instrument should be done only after receiving consent from the participants. Otherwise, it would be an unethical act.

One should note that a researcher may need to conduct more than one focus group for a research project.

10.2 Advantages of Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview has several advantages:

In case of face-to-face interview, or for that matter telephone interview, only one respondent could be interviewed at a time. So this method of data collection is a time consuming exercise. In focus group interview, the researcher talks to a group of individuals and that helps to save time.

That apart, focus group interview has other advantages. Some people, during face-to-face interview, hesitate to give correct information out of fear. In focus group interview, the respondent may expect, or may actually receive support from other participants. That may provide the respondent with necessary courage to express own opinion.

Another important point is that a respondent is asked questions in the presence of other fellow community members. In such a situation, there is a pressure to speak the correct facts as there is a chance to be caught for lying. Thus, it becomes relatively difficult, compared to face-to-face interview or telephone interview, to conceal correct information during focus group interview.

There exists also the possibility that one participant may contradict the view of another participant. Valuable data might be generated for the research out of such spontaneous debate where comment from one participant elicits comments from others (Baker 1999: 225).

Thus, lots of data could be collected and the researcher gets a sense of the issues related to the research topic in quick time. Reduction in time also means reduction in cost.

Focus group interview is very much in use for qualitative research. But it can be helpful for quantitative research as well along with other techniques. Findings of the interview, in short time period, helps the researcher to understand the issues and thereby constructing interview schedule (or questionnaire), structured or unstructured.

10.3 Limitations of Focus Group Interview

There are problems associated with focus group interview as well:

Some topics, for example, the topics that the participants may view personal and sensitive, are not appropriate for focus group interview (Smithson 2008: 361).

Some people prefer to talk in face-to-face situation, because of more privacy, rather than in the presence of others.

In contrast, some talkative people try to dominate the interaction during the interview. Their behaviour makes it difficult for others to speak.

If quarrel breaks out among the members, if the moderator fails to control the situation, there is a high possibility that the purpose of data collection would be affected to a great extent.

If the participants object to the use of any recording instrument, it would be very difficult to record the statements made during the discussion.

On the other hand, some people hesitate to freely express their opinion when recording instruments are there.

Self-check exercise 3

What advantage might focus group interview offer in contrast to face-to-face interview?

In focus group interview the researcher talks to a group of individuals and that saves time.
Reduction in time also means reduction in cost.
Some people, during face-to-face interview, hesitate to answer questions properly out of fear. In focus group interview, the respondent participates as a member of the group. He or she may expect, or may actually receive support from other participants. That may remove fear and hesitation to talk.
Another important point is that a participant makes statements in the presence of other fellow community members. In such a situation it becomes relatively difficult, compared to face-to-face interview to hide facts.
There exists the possibility that one participant may contradict the view of another participant during discussion. Such interaction may bring out valuable information.

Summary

In research methodology, the term ‘interview,’ means a method of data collection. In case of interview, the researcher directly asks questions to the respondents and the respondents give the researcher the answers. There are different types of interview method: structured interview, face-to-face interview, telephone interview, focus group interview, etc. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages. The structured interviews are very useful when a large number of respondents are to be covered by asking limited number of questions within a very short time period. Qualitative interview and focus group interview are helpful for exploring issues from the perspective of the participants. These methods are culturally sensitive to the participants’ experiences. Compared to structured interview or questionnaire, qualitative interview and focus group interview generally have more validity and less reliability. There is a higher chance of validity because the researcher goes close to the respondents, adopt flexible approach for data collection and thus can go near to the meaning of social life. But lack of standardized approach means less reliability, which is higher in case of structured interview or in case of self-administered questionnaire.

Did you know?

Description		Image		Source

Human resource professionals			http://www.nobscot.com/abo
of	a	company	conduct		ut/what_is_an_exit_intervie
interview of an employee who			w.cfm
is about to leave the
organization. The	questions
are asked about the level of job
satisfaction, the impression of
the	employee about the
company and most importantly
about the reasons for quitting
the job. The objective is to use
the data for better functioning
of the organization. This kind
of interview is called exit
interview.

you can view video on Research Methods 2: Interviews

Some useful links and e-resources

1) Forum: Qualitative Social research: qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs

2) Methods@manchester –The University of Manchester: methods.manchester.ac.uk/

3) Methods@manchester – methods.manchester.ac.uk/methodsfocusgroups/index.shtml

4) Oral History Society (UK) – ohs.org.uk

5) Oral History Association – oralhistory.org

6) Resources for Qualitative Research – University of Georgia: qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage/methods.html

7) University Libraries – University of Washington: lib.washington.edu/usability/resources/guides/focus-groups

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