32 Alternative sources/methods of knowledge/knowledge production

C. Naga Lakshmi

epgp books

1.   Objective

 

In this module you will learn about the need for and use of alternate research methods which can be used during data collection for sociological research. At the end are given some digital resources, a glossary for use and also a brief bibliography pertaining to the use of these methods.

 

2.   Introduction

 

Social Science researchers study and present an understanding and analyses of the social world. They seek to describe some features of social life or try to analyse and explain interrelationships among members and groups in society with factors that explain social phenomena. Researchers collect various types/forms of data using different methods to suit the objectives of the chosen research theme/topic. There are a set of methods that can be labelled as traditional/conventional methods based on the positivist paradigm explained in previous modules. The earlier notion/assumption in social research was that all the knowledge for social sciences is available to the researcher readily, and that the researcher only had to ask relevant questions, and obtain/gain the knowledge from the researched social groups. In other words, knowledge can be gained by a simple process of asking questions in a social survey about social world/social reality and through scientific measurement similar to that which is used in the natural sciences.

 

In social sciences, the researcher and researched interact in a dynamic process which yields valuable output – knowledge on social phenomena. However, there is a different premise on which the social researchers work. This is that the social sciences are fundamentally different from the natural sciences. There is a need for interpretation of the data and the social context and hence social researchers should study the meaning of social action (Bryman 2004). In other words, there are certain inherent weaknesses of the survey method. These limitations are explained in the following section in an attempt to show the need for alternate set of tools and modes for data collection.

 

2.1. Methodological Weaknesses of Interviews & Questionnaires

 

Social scientists have to deal with the issue of ‘objectivity’ and collect ‘unbiased’ responses during data collection from the respondents as well as informants during a survey. It must be noted that the process of eliciting the data is also ‘social’ in nature and this affects the interaction process. Knowledge is gained through the processes of observation, examination or interrogation of the experiences, attitudes and beliefs of people – who are for the ‘subjects’ of research. They are defined as the sample population of a study who are either directly (interview) and indirectly (questionnaire) asked to provide information to the researcher. Such a process of soliciting answers to specific questions raises many questions.

 

Thus, in a survey, only some of the identified respondents would be willing to answer the questions. Non-response to specific questions is particularly seen in questionnaire based studies. The basic question that crops up in any survey research is: how are the respondents going to benefit by sharing their time, energy and experience? As a corollary, even those who express their willingness to cooperate, do not in reality take such an endeavour seriously, and on many occasions, the answers provided tend to be in line with the study objectives stated by researcher and with an acceptable ‘self-image’. They also tend to answer in-line with the expectations of the researcher during the survey interaction process. This is specially the case with interviews, during which the respondents’ answers may be influenced by the words used during interaction, the framing of the questions and the meaning constructed. Often responses provided on items like literacy, income, or expenditure match with social expectations. It is, therefore, argued that the technique of interview comes in between the interviewer and the interviewee. Respondents follow the sequence of the questions and sometimes adjust their answers and check their own consistency.Again, respondents could be reactive to the presence of the researcher and others, therefore, there is a scope for receiving answers which are not so authentic and do not reflect their actual/real attitudes. This was proved during the well-known study at the Western Electric and known as the Hawthorne effect (Lee 2000: 5). A respondent is likely to be influenced by the physical presence of the researcher and is in itself an influencing factor in shaping ‘acceptable’ responses to the interview questions. To avoid this, the researcher has to be or become a part of the social group, but it is a very long time consuming activity to become a part of the studying group.

 

To prevent such interference, and to get rid of the influences of the attitudes, beliefs of the respondents affecting survey responses, there is a need for innovative approaches to elicit data. Observation of social phenomena can be the best method for social research, but its scope is limited. Obtaining and examining the physical evidence such as written documents, voice recordings and narratives, secondary sources for data collection, are explained in the previous modules of this programme.

 

2.2. Need for Alternate sources and methods

 

Another factor apart from respondent reactivity, that affects knowledge building in social research is, the research environment. It is dynamic and sometimes presents challenging tasks to the researcher while collecting data. There have been several complex transformations within the society as well within the social science disciplines to understand these phenomena. These transformations in the questions that are framed to study the social phenomena and the methods required to answer them have destabilised the traditional modes of thinking and knowledge building as well as the sources of knowledge. A new set of methods had to be adopted by the social scientists to build knowledge on these complex interrelationships and phenomena. These new modes of knowledge building endeavours by social scientists have paved way to understand in depth, the interconnections between several phenomena like race, nation and gender. The orientation also has been that of accommodating newer methods, cross-disciplinarity and thus offering much flexibility in methods, yet retaining the much desired theoretical rigour. These methods have been labelled and explained as ‘Unobtrusive methods’ (Webb et al. 1966) and also as ‘Emergent Methods’ (Nagy and Leavy 2006).

 

Self-Check Exercise 1:

 

Q 1. Research methods for natural sciences and social sciences are common. Do you agree?

 

Disagree. Natural phenomena and social phenomena are different and cannot be studied using the same methods. Natural sciences are based on direct observations and experimental methods. Social phenomena are usually studied using surveys, questionnaires and interviews. The answers to these questions given by respondents are based on the meanings and perceptions of individuals and need interpretive methods to analyse responses.

 

Q 2. Explain the need for alternate methods in social sciences.

 

Social science research tends to be affected by respondent’s reactivity and social interferences during the interviews and surveys. There is a need to get rid of the influences of the attitudes and beliefs of the respondents affecting survey responses. The best way to do so is to look for innovative and alternate approaches to elicit data. Also, in dynamic and difficult field work situations, researchers may have to adopt alternate methods of data collection.

 

3.   Unobtrusive Methods

 

The newer research methods, other than the traditional methods, are more adaptable in situations where eliciting information is difficult and/or challenging and sometimes it is also dangerous for the researcher to remain physically present at the research site. In all such cases, the unobtrusive methods are useful and as a corollary such approach promotes innovative methodologies.

 

The need for these methods also arises out of the fact that there has been a decline in the response to surveys (Lee 2000: 4). There is also some tendency of researcher to develop over reliance on the volunteering respondents and their responses. It is possible to use multiple methods during data collection, and include some unobtrusive methods in combination with the survey research methods. Thus, the use of unobtrusive methods is actually complementary to the traditional methods and one can avoid over reliance on a given method including biases and reactivity especially in sensitive or adverse situations in the research/field environment. As against some qualitative methods, such as ethnography, which are time consuming and require constant presence of researcher, which again can alter the respondents’ disposition, these unobtrusive methods have some benefits. These are as follows:

 

·         Easier access to data;

·         Permission from subjects is not always necessary;

·         Relatively inexpensive;

·         Appropriate for longitudinal studies that follow activities/processes over a period of time;

·         Non-reactive, meaning subjects are not interrupted, their time is not taken up, and they are not prompted to disclose sensitive or potentially distressing information;

·         Safe in comparison to other methods due to the degree of distance, or in some cases complete anonymity of the researcher;

·         Keep a sufficient amount of distance from a subject and thus the researcher can maintain relative objectivity;

·         Appropriate for use when a research topic is of a sensitive nature or one personally close to the researcher.

 

There are however some precautions that a researcher should take note of while using these methods. First, there is a potential for ‘unconscious’ selective recording of observational data due to the identity and social positioning of the researcher. A thorough evaluation of both sources and findings for authenticity is necessary. The credibility, representativeness and meaning must be ascertained by the researcher in the study and while reporting. The researcher, therefore, should use her/his discretion to select a research setting where interesting insights can be gained without disturbing or influencing people, and instead by observing with care and listening systematically.

 

The repertoire of unobtrusive methods includes the following sources:

 

  •    written and audio-visual records;
  •     material culture (physical objects, settings and traces);
  •      simple observations;
  •    hardware techniques for recording/capturing data, for example, camera, videos etc.

One way of classifying these methods (Lee 2000) are:

 

1.        Found data

 

a.  Erosion

 

b.  Accretion

 

2.      Captured data

 

a.  Videos and Still photography

 

b.  Visual Sociology

 

3.      Retrieved data: Further divided into:

 

a.  Running records

 

b.  Personal and episodic records

 

4.      Internet

 

3.1. Found Data –

 

Found data are nothing but the traces of the phenomena under study. The use of resources by population under study can be an indication of a particular phenomenon. This occurs as ‘erosion’ which is the frequent use of resources in terms of wear and tear and ‘accretion’ which is the frequent addition to or what keeps adding up.

 

a.   Erosion

 

The levels of consumption or too much consumption of any resource, material objects, leave certain traces. This aspect of research is similar to an investigation. Some examples of social aspects of erosion and socially relevant indicators of a phenomenon are –

 

·        Accumulation and use of circulatory devices such as stamps and tickets, pamphlets;

·        The staining and wearing down of floor tiles in a particular area of a building are indicative of the social preferences of a population;

·        In a gym, the popularity of a particular gym apparatus can be indicated by the amount of chalk consumed, and can be associated with the ‘self’ image and acceptability in a peer                  group of the people using it;

·        The popularity of books can be gauged by the crumples, smudges, finger marks etc. They also indicate the phenomena/aspects/themes which are of interest to people and the                reasons for the same;

·        The pamphlets, brochures and leaflets published in different languages and on several issues are used and thrown or retained by a population can be observed;

·        Mementoes and pictures on postcards purchased and the popularity linked with a social preference, affinity due to any social cause;

·        Cultural changes can be observed by the use of land for burials in rural and urban settings, the sizes, shapes and designs of the graves; the cultural trends in the epitaphs have                changed from  complex to simple forms, the designs sculpted are indicative of the social differentiation and status.

 

b.   Accretion

 

Accretion is the opposite of erosion, and is indicative of accumulation of evidence of social activity and some residues. The best example of this is the – Graffiti: writings on public spaces. These writings indicate the existence of conflicts in social groups, and can be observed in some specific locations. These are indicative of the tensions in society, relationships in institutions such as schools. The content is indicative of social composition, social occupations and their conflicts. The quality of content indicates level of conflict with abuse and symbolic representations.

 

One can even observe the garbage discarded. This is termed as Garbology, and can indicate consumption and accumulation of material specific to the preferences of the society under study. For example, one can trace habits of alcoholism by noticing the presence such bottles (and even type and quality of such alcohol bottles) in the garbage of a neighbourhood.

 

The advantages of these methods are that they are abundant, pervasive, low cost, quantifiable, and allow researcher’s anonymity. However, there are some disadvantages of Found Data, and these are that they are socially dependent, they take time to accumulate, and sometimes are weak evidence for inference, as they give only conservative estimates for the concerned variables.

 

3.2. Captured Data

 

Captured data is a method of data collection which relies on what is observed as discreetly as possible, in a field including the exterior physical signs such as hair on head and face, tattooing, clothing and adornments, the expressive movements such as the demeanour, eye gaze, touch and verbal latency, the maintenance of proximity and spatial arrangement of people and their physical arrangements in settings, the In-situ conversation and pronunciation and time related behaviour, what the time/part of the day is influencing a particular behaviour. It is necessary that the role of the observer has to be passive and sampling should be done with care.

 

There are many variations in the recording techniques for captured data. One is to create descriptive records with a clear depiction of the settings and situations, with complete details without evaluating it. This can be done through written notes or recorded content. A check-sheet also can be used in a simple format for observations with a little prior preparation. Using a grid, the time of observation and what is observed are recorded on the check-sheet. For complex and large volume of data, computers can be used.

 

a.        Videos and still photography

 

Videos and still photography constitute unobtrusive data collection. To observe processes in public spaces, thoroughfares, time-lapse videos/filming can be very useful. These methods provide data captured in detail and can be retrieved at any point of time. Photography is one more important technique that has been used by cultural anthropologists and sociologists, to document the cultural processes/artefacts of the people they studied. Social change can be observed with photographic documentaries through creation of a repository of data, with systematic collection and analysis. A shooting script is created with questions on what is to be photographed. Photographs are taken as responses to the questions listed and a descriptive narrative is then written around these visuals. Digital photography can provide a detailed narrative through several images of social situations, and creation of digital image databases. of human behaviour, within time and space and social meanings, are amenable to simple observation and that is the basis on which captured data can be collected in a given research setting. However, there are some ethical considerations of capturing such data. Thus, when the researcher starts recording data, it could lead to reactivity among the respondents during photo sessions. This could affect validity and reliability of data. It must also be noted that such observation offers content that is limited, based only on the visibility, and requires access to other more potentially reactive forms of data.

 

b.   Visual Sociology

 

A new sociology using visual methods called Visual sociology is emerging (read, for details, content of module no. RMS 29). This “is an area of sociology concerned with the visual dimensions of social life… Visual sociology – theoretically at least – includes the study of all kinds of visual material and the visual social world, and uses all kinds of visual material in its methodologies” (source: http://www.visualsociology.org.uk/whatis/index.php).

 

There are at least three approaches to doing visual sociology:

 

·        Data collection using cameras and other recording technology: A sociologist can use film and video cameras as data gathering technologies for data and even experiments. This is a good tool to study small group interactions, classroom studies, ethnography, participant observation, oral history, the use of urban space, etc.

·        Studying visual data produced by cultures: a society produces various images as part of its culture and this can be studied sociologically.

·        Communication with images and media other than words: Another way of visual sociology’s contribution is through the use of visual media in order to communicate sociological understandings to professional and public audiences. One can also use visual media within sociological research itself.

3.3. Retrieved Data

 

a. Running Records

 

Data can also be collected unobtrusively through repositories of records created by several institutions, bureaucracy such as population records, actuarial records of births, deaths, marriages. These can be classified into running records vs. episodic and private records. Examples of running records include news archives and other mass media, reference works, records of proceedings in public domain. These records include factual material and cover lengthy periods of time. These sources are ubiquitous and do not cost much. They are less amenable to self-report and low on bias. The records that are provided by the bureaucracies actually allow the exploration of trends and temporal patterns.

 

Apart from the bureaucratic sources for data, mass media including the news stories, advertisements, photographs, obituaries/weeding announcements are other sources that can offer running records for longitudinal and temporal analysis. There are also internet based repositories of news and analysis available as archives. Others include reference works such as directories, almanacs, yearbooks, retrieved data from the records of proceedings. Documentation of discussions and decisions in institutions and formal organizations also can be used as running records.

 

Advertisements can also act as retrieved data as they indicate the social perceptions and relationships, health problems specific to that time period. Wedding cards and marriage announcements and obituaries also indicate the influence of religion and the class vs. church denomination. They also  show the association between gender and occupation, gender and length of obituary. Other sources include the job advertisements, book lists, phone books, etc.

 

It should, however, be acknowledged that retrieved data also come with some limitations. When bureaucratic data is being used along with any other forms of data for a longitudinal analysis and record linkage, there could be some discontinuities. Hence, one should be vigilant and observe some restrictions in matching such data with other data sources. They cannot be used “as is” and one should consult with those who collected or produced them to know the intricacies and context in which the data were collected. There could be some quality issues and questions on the quality of data, especially when data is more extensive. Statistics generated out of the data might also reflect the aims and objectives of the organization or those collecting and analysing such data. Confidentiality and restrictions in usage of these sources also create limitations.

 

b. Personal and Episodic Records

 

Sources of data can provide good narratives of social life in different times. They are in a way self-reports. Best example is personal documents like letters, diaries/ daily journals, autobiographies, curriculum vitae’s, wills and photo albums. The way families arrange photographs/albums of weddings and birthday celebrations, for example, may provide useful insights. Importance given to family members is visible clearly in positioning them in photos. Written documents and the language used in them is another important source of understanding relationships within families and in society.

 

3.4. Internet

 

Internet actually transformed the ways in which a society shares information about itself and among members of different groups. There are ways in which internet is used by members of a society – the type of information they share, the way they maintain their network, the frequency and intensity of such communication, the content of their communication. Interestingly, the popularity of a site or a statement made in the pages of Facebook can be measured by the numbers of likes/dislikes. Very often, such networking relies more on reciprocity and mutual interests than on the quality of friendship. These and many more are amenable for study without the issue of reactivity of respondents which occurs in direct research through survey or interview.

 

Computer and information technologies also provide sources and tools for sourcing and storage of data in a wide range of formats. Data stored in the internet such as images, videos, archives of documents, news, as discussed in the previous section, on personal web pages, social networks and the like offer a wealth of information for social research. Most importantly, internet is a very good unobtrusive method as one can access information in a discrete manner, unless investigated in-depth by experts to know who accessed information and when on the World Wide Web.

 

Internet and the online based unobtrusive measures provide access to plenty of secondary sources, with options to search through search engines like Google or Internet Explorer. The information required is first sourced and later can be used for analysis of its content. Another way is the use of the medium for communication. Thus, like telephone, e-mail can be used for dispersing questionnaires. It is worth noting here that as a direct tool, internet has made it possible for researchers to know about the online users cutting across social and geographical boundaries. Interestingly, while carrying out research in this way, the researcher also can keep her/his as well as the respondents’ identity anonymous.

 

This form of research can be termed as computer-mediated communication, which compels social scientists to carefully consider about ethical issues such as informed consent, maintaining  confidentiality and anonymity of respondents while using this medium for research via emails etc. Technological advances have complemented the methodological advances and innovative methods using new technologies are now gaining acceptance in social science research. It may be mentioned here that with increasing use of electronic technology and mobile phones, telephonic interviews or SMS surveys have also become possible these days.

 

Self-Check Exercise 2:

 

Q. Alternate Research methods using sources such as personal diaries, documents, still photographs are treated as secondary sources for data and as evidence in social research. Are these sources reliable and valid as they are? Explain.

 

The use of secondary sources and evidence in social research may not be adequate for a complete explanation of social reality. There is a need for due diligence by the researcher, as many alternate sources of data can be potentially biased and require some form of validation through other means, such as personal interviews and observation to supplement the same.

 

4.      Innovative approaches to social research and data sources

 

Innovative and critical approaches in social science research are emerging without challenging or compromising the academic standards as they allow exciting new interpretations and findings from social phenomena. It may be observed that the new trend is not just combining qualitative and quantitative methods; it also accepts and recognises methodological diversity. Researchers from various disciplines, institutes and research centres are increasingly getting connected through net. This is leading to the emergence of multi-dimensional lenses to view or investigate the social world and posing new questions that cannot necessarily be answered using traditional research techniques. It is not just about increasing the number of methods and tools to measure, but about innovative methods emerging to access aspects of social reality, for interpretive and critical understanding. Though these newer sources are challenged and are treading unchartered ground, the originality and innovative approach to sensitive issues and questions provide a strong support for their use. If traditional qualitative and quantitative methods are used along with these newer methods in complementary manner, researchers can tackle issues of limitations of resources and sensitivity of respondents especially in dynamic and volatile research environments.

 

We may, therefore, conclude that the newer and alternate methods of data collection promote scholarly conversations and contributions through knowledge building and research, with newer questions. Emergent and unobtrusive methods call for a re-evaluation of conventional standards and inter-disciplinary approaches. These methods not only are appropriate for particular research projects with sensitive issues but also for the larger project of knowledge building in the disciplines.

 

Self-Check Exercise 3:

 

Q. Explain the need for evolving innovative research methods in social sciences.

 

In recent times, social sciences have been undergoing certain transformations in the areas of research and the way research questions have been framed. This has called for a consequent transformation in the methodology and the sources of data as well. The evolution of the newer themes and research questions and methods has led social scientists to innovate on the ways of data collection, methods in unobtrusive ways. Some of the innovative methods include data found, as evidence and accretion of evidence. There is also data available as captured data through photographs and videos, categorised as  captured data. Internet is another most important source and a newer technological source, which is non-interfering and does not allow the respondents to know that they are being followed.

 

5.      Summary

 

This module would have familiarised you with the some dynamic research settings and field work challenges, and the need and relevance for evolving alternate data collection methods. We have noted that the repertoire of unobtrusive methods includes sources like written and audio-visual records, material culture (physical objects, settings and traces), personal records, simple observations, and hardware techniques for recording/capturing data, for example, camera, videos etc and internet. Also, this module informs that these methods not only are appropriate for particular research projects which deals with sensitive issues, but also for the larger project of knowledge building in the disciplines, when used with some diligence and validation of data through other sources.

 

  1. Some useful links and e-resources

 

 

Detailed papers http://2012books.lardbucket. A  complete  chapter-wise  reading  on  the  use  of
Unobtrusive methods
on unobtrusive org/books/sociological- Unobtrusive methods
methods with inquiry-principles-
some examples qualitative-and-quantitative-
methods/s14-unobtrusive-
research-qualitati.html
Web page http://www.socialresearchme
presenting the thods.net/kb/unobtrus.php
measurement
aspects of
unobtrusive
methods
Using internet http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SR A paper on the use of internet unobtrusively published
for research U61.pdf by the University of Surrey
International http://visualsociology.org
visual sociology
– website

 

you can view video on Alternative sources/methods of knowledge/knowledge production

 

  1. References