4 Functionalism, neo-functionalism and system analysis: Robert Merton

Subrat Rath and Dev Pathak

1.  The Person

Robert King Merton (R.K. Merton) was born on July 4, 1910 in Philadelphia to a family of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. In Philadelphia the Library next to his home founded the base for his ideas on science, literature, history and biographies etc. The emergence of new libraries, educational institutions, art museums in the 1920s, enabled Merton to flourish in his academic endeavours. Looking at his addiction towards books, G.E.Simpson, a Sociology instructor at Temple College appointed Merton as a research assistant to study the public imagery of Blacks. This triggered Merton’s lifelong passion for social inquiry. The creation of Merton was a deliberate influence of some of the profound social thinkers both at peer level as well as the teachers.

In the starting of his academic journey, P. A. Sorokin advised Merton to apply for graduate study at Havard University and also made him his teaching and research assistant. Sorokin along with Merton co-authored ‘Social time’ and a chapter in ‘Social and Cultural Dynamics’. Besides Sorokin, Talcott Parsons introduced Merton to the works of classical sociologists like Durkheim, Weber, Marx and Simmel. Followed by the above two prominent social thinkers, Merton was introduced to George Sarton who introduced him with history of science. However Merton spent a long span of his life with mathematician-psychologists turned sociologist Paul F. Lazarsfield with whom he co- directed the famous Bureau of Applied Social Research.

1.1  The Works 

After his graduation in the year 1931, Merton won a fellowship at Harvard University and in 1936 defended his Doctoral Dissertation, ‘Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England’. Under the Supervision of George Sarton his doctoral work was published in book form after two years. Merton’s influential article, entitled ‘The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action’ was published in 1936. Following this in 1938 another article ‘Social Structure and Anomie’ was published. Most of his works reflect upon the role of the intellectuals in public bureaucracy (1945), social responsibilities of technologists (1947), the role of applied social sciences in the formation of policy (1949) etc. His theoretical works deal with deviance, anomie, racial discrimination, marriage patterns, political machineries, propaganda and medical education. Ideologically speaking his articles dealt with destruction by science in Nazi Germany and the defence of scientific ethos. Some of his other works include, ‘Civilisation and Culture’ (1936), ‘Social Structure and Anomie’ (1938), ‘Recent French Sociology’ (1934), ‘Durkheim’s Division of Labour in Society’ (1934), ‘Self Fulfilling Prophecy’ (1948), a series of lectures on ‘Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery’ (1996), ‘The Mathew Effect in Science: The Reward and Communication System of Science’ (1968), ‘Socially Expected Durations’ (1984), ‘The Fallacy of the Latest World:The Case of Pietism and Science’ (1984), etc.

1.2  Objective Consequenses and Subjective Dispositions: 

In social sciences, there has always existed an ambiguity between subjective motives and objective function of action. For Merton ‘function’ involves the standpoint of the observer and not necessarily that of the participant. Hence a social function refers to observable objective consequences and not subjective dispositions.  He  believed  that  science  develops  cumulatively  and  incrementally  by standing on the shoulder of giants. There are mainly three directives of relating to the masters:

(a) A Selective Approach: To derive the core ideas of the masters and remodelling of it to avoid their blind alleys and mistakes.

(b) A New Reading of the Masters: After critically analysing their ideas, reworking their ideas by relating to new perspectives and approaches, discoveries and experiences etc.

(c) Injuction of Critical Enrich: This refers to partly or entirely rejection of past  ideas which are found to be incomplete, deficient and obsolete.

The above approach goes into the establishment of Mertonian Theories. However, the question that comes to a reader’s mind is that – who are/were those scholars /giants on the shoulder of which Merton self consciously places himself. Let’s analyse them.

In the list of his recognised ideals Durkheim is quoted more often than any other. His major theories, analysis of social structure and other works basically looked similar to the works of Durkheim. Unlike Durkheim in terms of common theoretical approaches (functional and structural analysis) had given importance on objectivity/social facts. Mertonian idea of ‘anomie’ and ‘deviance’ is basically influenced by the Durkheimian analogy of ‘anomic suicide’, for example. Marxian notions of the structure and factors of human phenomena such as contradictions, conflict and circularities of social processes influenced Merton. Merton’s indebtness to Simmel becomes all the more apparent in the context of conceptual analysis of patterned interactions, social visibility, observability, in- group  integration  and  inter-group  conflicts,  the  completeness,  openess,  closedness  of  groups, reference groups, etc.

Weberian theory of action, idea of valuefree sociology, the ideal type of bureaucratic organisation, etc. are some points where Merton agreed upon. He was mostly influenced by the ideas of George Sarton in science, its development, the operation of scientific community and specific techniques for studying historical sources. Parsons’ influence on Merton’s interest towards theoretical considerations was very immense. Parsonian abstract theorisation was a subject of Merton’s persistent challenge, leading him to propose of the notion of ‘middle-range theory’ in 1945. Similarly Parsonian idea of Structural Functionalism was a subject of Merton’s contribution to the birth of his own dynamic ‘functional analysis” in 1949. Similarly Merton’s focus on discursive, conceptual clarification and elaboration went in parallel to Lazarsfeld’s emphasis on turning concepts into operationalised, testable variables.They together brought about the study on ‘Friendship Formation’ (1954).

2.  The System Analysis 

The Durkeimian analysis is perceived to be the foundation of functionalism in Sociology, though functionalism is traced back to the root of Darwinian idea of ‘Organic Analogy’. Durkheim basically deals with the question of, how social order is possible and remains relatively stable? To answer this he argued that society is more than the sum total of parts and each part is functional for the stability of society as a whole. So the functionalists hold the view that social structure or the organisation of society is more important than the individual. He sees society as a system: a set of interconnected parts which together forms the whole. According to this theory the social system is maintained by social concensus in which memebers of the society agree upon and work together to achieve the best for society as a whole. Hence society is a self-regulated system of interrelated elements with structured social relationships and observed regulations.

Comte viewed society as a functionally organised system with its parts and components in harmony while Durkheim emphasised the primacy of the system over elements maintained by the social facts which is the proper subject matter of sociology. For him through social facts it is possible to explain the cause and consequences of functionalism.  Similarly Malinowski treated social and cultural systems as collective response to fundamental biological needs of individuals modifed by cultural values. Radcliffe Brown on the other hand emphasised upon structured social relationships where each elements functions for the maintainance and development of total structure.

However, after 1930s the functionalism as a theory got refined in the form of structural functionalism that sees ‘system within system’. Merton is believed to be the founder of this thesis of functionalism who identified new aspects of social life which are sociologically significant. He coined the term ‘neologism’ to designate them. He identified and highlighted earlier concepts and terms throughout his works. His canons of contemporary sociology contains manifest-latent function, dysfunctions, self-fulfilling prophecy, homophily- heterophily, status-set role-set, opportunity structures, anticipatory socialisation, reference group behaviour, sociological ambivalence etc.The clearcut understanding of these concepts helps better understanding of the social system as a whole.

2.1.  Meaning and Goal of Sociology 

For Merton Sociology can be described as ‘lucidly presenting claims to logically interconnected and empirically confirmed propositions about the structure of society and its changes, the behaviour of man within the structure and the consequences of that behaviour’ (Merton, 1968, p.70). After describing the call of sociologists his next attempt was to focus on the goal of sociology as a stream. For him in the large, ‘Sociology is engaged in finding out how man’s behaviour and fate are affected, if not minutely governed, by his place within particular units and changing kinds of social structure and culture’ (Merton, 1976, p.184). Hence from the above discussion the prime subject matter of Sociology has the following aspects:

(i)   Genetic: How it came to be?

(ii)  Functional: How it affects behaviour?

(iii) Static: How it operates?

(iv) Dynamic: How it changes?

Hence for Merton, Sociology is the study of social structure.Though Merton started the Functional Analytical Approach, for him the central orientation of functionalism is ‘the practice of interpreting data by establishing their consequences for larger structure in which they are implicated’ (Merton, 1968, pp.100-1). However he has logically extended this functional analysis in the year 1975 in his writings on ‘structural analysis in Sociology’. In this he explained that functional analysis specifies the consequences of a social phenomenon for its differentiated structural context and structural analysis searches for the determinants of the phenomenon in its structural context.

2.2.  Criteria of Social Structure 

Mertonian analysis of functionalism based on structural context has the following four defining criterias:

(i) Organised  set  of social  relationship:  the  focus  is  on relating  and  linking  various components of society,

(ii)  A pattern: a regular and repetitive character of social relation

(iii) The latent function: the idea of a deep, hidden and underlying level consequences (manifest vs. latent function)

(iv) Structural context and structural constraints: the idea of constraining or facilitating influences exerted by social structure on more concrete, more directly accessible social phenomena and events (behaviour, beliefs, attitudes and motivations, etc.)

For Merton the fourth criterion is of great importance, he argues that ‘human behaviour is a result not merely of personal qualities, but of those in interaction with the patterned situations in which the individual behaves. It is these social contexts which greatly affect the extent to which the capacities of individuals are actually realised’ (Merton 1982a, p.174). Further, he argues that it should not be taken only in a negetive sense rather it positively influences, facilitates, encourages and stimulates certain choices by actors or agents (Merton 1968).

Mertonian structural analysis is best reflected in his work ‘Anomie’, that talks about the structural condition of dissociation between uniform cultural demands of success and the differentiated opportunities of success that results in innovations, ritualism, retreatism,rebellion, etc. depending upon the wider structural context within which it appears.

2.3.  Traits of Social Structure 

The Mertonian flavour of social structure analysis consists of the following two traits:

(a) Complex and multidimension: a plurality of components, elements such as statuses, roles, role-set, status-set, norms, values, institutions, collectivities, groups etc. shaped into various kinds of network and interlinkages,

(b) Emphasis on asymmetrical relationship: because  of  social  statuses,  stratas, organisations, communities there arises social conflicts leading to dysfunctions, strains and tensions.

Hence Merton’s core idea is to consider human individuals and their actions as structurally located, anchored in the network of social relationship.There are two senses of structural changes that Merton emphasises upon.

2.4.  Senses of Social Structure 

Merton proposes the distinction between the social structure in narrow senses and the cultural sense. For him, the salient environment of individuals can be usefully thought of as involving the cultural structure on the one hand and the social structure on the other (Merton 1968). For him ‘cultural structure’ comes to be characterised exclusively in normative terms such as networks of norms, values, roles and institutions etc. Influenced by Weber and Marxian ideas on ‘life chances and vested interests’, Merton has argued that ‘social structure’ in the narrow sense has the notion of ‘opportunity structure’. It is understood as a hierarchically differentiated access to resources, facilities and valuables such as wealth, power and prestige.

2.5.  Types of Structural Changes 

For Merton, social structure generates changes both within the structure and changes of the structure through cumulatively patterned choices in behaviour and the amplification of dysfunctional consequences resulting from strains, conflicts and contradictions. Hence, through his theory Merton incorporated structurally produced changes in and of social structures.The following types of structural changes fall within the purview of Mertonian Dynamics:

(1) The  reproductive  changes:  changes  that  involve  regular  functioning  of  everyday society consisting of the ongoing adaptive processes which in turn reproduce specified states of a social structure. As a result, those changes keep them within the limits by maintaining the structural identity concerned.

(2) The transformation of structure: changes that disrupt the existing structure create a new one in its place.

From the above analysis, it is clear that Merton’s theory of social structure basically based upon the assumptions that structural conflicts bring about transformations of social structure upto a point when a new structure emerges and the structural conflict is reproduced in a new form. Hence he talks about the amplification rather than compensation.

2.6.  Mechanisms of Structure Building 

The next question that strikes Merton in the process of theory building is – what could be the general mechanism of structure building? Hence he singles out the following general mechanisms of structure building, such as:

a) Mechanism of accumulated dysfunctions: the accumulation of dysfunctions occurs when certain structural elements are dysfunctional for a social system as a whole or some of its core elements. The larger the number of such dysfunctional elements and the more dysfunctional each of them, the more likely is the system to break down. Similarly it also happened that some elements are basically functional for a social system but has some additional dysfunctional side effects.

But the question that comes to mind is regarding the relative weight of the accumulated dysfunctional side effects. Merton argues that basic and empirically frequent case obtains when certain structures are functional for certain groups or strata in society and dysfunctional for others.The net outcome towards stability or change is then determined by the relative (comparative) power of the various group benefited or affected by those patterned social arrangements. When they come to possess sufficient power they introduce structural changes. The pressure of change depends on the complex set of historical circumstances determining the relative functional significance of the subsystems dysfunctionally affected. If the subsystems touch the subsystems’ core strategically then change is likely.

b) Mechanism of accumulated innovations: Here Merton focuses on the ‘crescive change of normative structure’ (Sztompka 1996: 14). He argues even though certain norms are generally legitimate, certain individuals find the norms too demanding for them, thereby evading norms. When the evasion becomes more widespread, undertaken by a plurality of persons and repeated on various occasions, public awareness is generated. But the belief that ‘everybody does it’ along with the tendency to imitate successful evaders’ leads to the patterning of evasions (Sztompka 1996: 14). It is clearly now realised that ‘institutionalised evasion’ fully applies through the granting of a degree of legitimacy.This leads to the final phase of a structure building.

3.  Function: Manifest, Latent and Dysfunctions 

From the above analysis it is now clear that Mertonian functionalism questions basically the three primary postulates of early functionalism, viz. the functional unity of social system, the functional universality of social items and the indispensability of functional items for social systems.Rather for Merton the components of social structure at both levels such as social structure proper and of cultural structure are variously interrelated. Rejecting the earlier functional ideas of equilibrium, consensus and harmony, Merton sees these ideas (integration) as problematic and contingent, not as given. For him various kinds of strains, tensions, contradictions and conflicts in social structure are very much functional and not pathological. They are normal, typical, and permanent.

Merton has adopted these two terms ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ from Freud. Merton defines manifest functions as ‘those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment or adaptation of the system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system’. By contrast, latent functions are ‘those which are neither intended nor recognized’ (Merton 1949: 51). Thus, manifest functions are objective consequences for a specified unit (person, subgroup, social or cultural system) which contribute to its adjustment and are intended but latent functions are unintended and often unrecognized consequences. The concept of latent functions extends beyond whether or not behavior attained its purpose. It directs attention towards individual personalities involved in behavior, and the persistence and continuity of larger group. As a result, sociologist will be concerned with determining whether a practice instituted for a particular purpose does, in fact, achieve this and also sociologist can be capable in examining the familiar (or planned) social practice to determine the latent, unrecognized, functions.

Be it a manifest or latent function, it is the objective, observed consequences which makes for the adaptation and adjustment of a given system. However, for Merton there are certain consequences those lessen the adaptation and adjustment of the system, he uses the term ‘Dysfunction’ to explain this. To ascertain the causes and consequences of particular structure and process, Merton insists that functional analysis begins with ‘sheer description’ of individual and group activities. In describing the patterns of interaction and activity among units under investigation, it will be possible to discern clearly the social items to be subjected to functional analysis.They can also provide a major due to the functions performed by such patterned activity. Hence the first step of the investigator is to indicate the principal alternatives that are excluded by the dominance of a particular pattern. The second analytical step beyond sheer description involves an assessment of the meaning, mental and emotional significance of the activities of a group. Merton has also devised alternative functions known as the substitutes which could instead deliver the sort of functions advocated by Talcott Parson’s in the form of functional pre-requisites. He termed them as Functional Alternatives.

4.  The Reference Group 

For Merton a reference group is one to which an individual always refers in order to evaluate his/her achievements, role performance, aspirations and ambitions. It is through this reference group that an individual is judged. Membership groups as well as non-membership groups can be reference groups. Human beings look at themselves not solely through the eyes of their group members but also through the eyes of those who belong to other groups. Merton & Kitt’s (1950) synthesized studies involving reference groups has offered detailed discussions on research related to the field of reference group theory, introducing a new concept, anticipatory socialization. They argued that anticipatory socialization occurs when individuals chose as a reference group, a non- membership group, and began to socialize them to what they perceived to be the group’s norms.

5.  Middle Range Theory 

Functional theories, according to Merton were value-neutral. There are no ‘good’ or ‘bad’ aspects, just objective analysis. There may exist intended, manifest functions or there could be unintended, latent consequences of action. In the year 1940s he used the term ‘middle range theory’ to overcome the problems inherent in the new sociological emphasis on abstraction. There was an increasing desire among sociologists of the time for a unified sociological theory but which ultimately became so broad as to render it empirically untestable. Merton argued that middle range theories could be developed to test subsections of these high-level, abstract theories. Thus, middle range theory was developed to guide the empirical investigation of higher-order theories. The goal of this new level of theorizing was to generate the theories that were sufficiently abstract to allow behavioral generalization, and yet was satisfactorily grounded in reality, so that they could be empirically verified. To put it simply middle range theory is, at its most basic level, a set of theories or propositions that bridge the gap between the empirical observation and broad, often abstract and untestable, general or high-level theories. According to Merton theories of the middle range, ‘…lie between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of social behavior, social organization, and social change’ (Merton, 1968, p. 39).

The main features of Middle Range Theories are as follows:

(a)  they  are  not  directly  inferred  from  experience  but  rather  themselves  generate inferences about experience:

Each of these theories provides an image that gives rise to inferences. To take but one case: if the atmosphere is thought of as a sea of air, then, as Pascal inferred, there should be less air pressure on a mountain top then at its base. The initial idea thus suggests specific hypotheses which are tested by seeing whether the inferences from them are empirically confirmed. The idea itself is test for its fruitfulness by noting the range of theoretical problems and hypotheses that allow one to identify new characteristics of atmospheric pressure (Ibid. 40).

(b) These inferences ‘guide empirical inquiry’:

Middle-range theory is principally used in sociology to guide empirical inquiry… it is intermediate to general theories of social systems which are too remote from particular classes of social behavior, organization, and change to account for what is observed, and to those detailed orderly description of particulars that are not generalized at all (Ibid. 39).

(c) middle-range theories are limited in scope:

‘Middle-range theories involve abstractions, of course, but they are close enough to observed data to be incorporated in propositions that permit empirical testing. Middle range theories deal with delimited aspects of social phenomena … One speaks of a theory of reference groups, of social mobility, or role-conflict and of the formation of social norms just as one speak of a theory of prices, a germ theory of disease, or a kinetic theory of gases’ (Ibid.:.39).

Hence, Merton has suggested that social sciences focus on theories of the middle range, rather than, on the one hand, mere hypotheses with little explanatory power, or, on the other hand, high-level all-encompassing theories that can be neither clearly defined nor empirically validated. Although middle-range theories are not, at least in the usual circumstances, derived from more general theories, yet they may have logical relationships to those broader theories.

6.  Understanding Merton through Examples 

Merton tells that sociology should not be committed to studying only ‘functions’ roles of Sociologists need to develop an empirical idea about functional, dysfunctional and non-functional relationship between different social institutions in a given society. Hence he rejects out-rightly the thesis that there is presence of a universal functional role of every institution in society. Rather the subject matter of sociology should be the analysis of function, dysfunction and non-function. For example, students go to the university to obtain academic degrees. They pass out of the university with the degrees and subsequently enter the job market. Here the function of university is to supply manpower to the working/service industry. But what people generally forget about is that university is also a place for political socialisation- students contest elections, participate in campaigns based on different kinds of issues. In return these help the students to grow up in the national political system. Hence one must observe such implicit functional role of the educational system. Also one will find a series of dysfunctional roles of university that includes when students are not going for their own choice based course. They are carried away by the compulsion of market. Their interest in a particular stream of knowledge is lost. Education becomes a pathological experience for the child. This could result in disillusionment among children and their dropping out from the education system. This way Merton highlights that every institution could have functional, dysfunctional manifest and/or latent roles.

Merton indicates that crime should not be treated as dysfunctional phenomena. People generally adhere to culturally prescriptive means to achieve goals; but in many cases they are not in a position to accomplish their goals. There emerges a huge gap between commitment to culture and accomplishment of goals. This dichotomy leads to the manifect function of criminality, hence deviance is present in every society and the deviant itself have functional, dysfunctional and non- functional roles to play. Therefore while looking at deviance as an act we should not be jumping at the conclusion that deviance has positive roles to play or negative roles to play. So deviance needs to be studied in every possible detail. Merton took the American culture into account by saying that it promotes hardwork and individualism and by adhering to these values, citizens can become rich irrespective of their ethnicity, gender and age. America considers itself as an achievement-oriented society. However, one can find that though many people are confined to prescriptive cultural norms, all are not in a position to accomplish their goals. As a result the gap between the means and the end emerges, giving rise to the acceleration of deviance and conflict in American society.

Further, Merton argues there are different categories of people. There are conformists who conform to institutionalised prescriptions of norms and some of them accomplish the goal and others who are deprived of feel that one day or the other their goals will be accomplished. But Merton argues if their goals are not accomplished then its difficult to say that their behaviour is normal. The ritualists keep on doing works primarily in a continuous basis following rules of law, going for education again but never in a condition to accomplish their goal in a lifetime. They follow the rules in a sytematic ritualistic manner but ultimately nothing comes to their hand and they stand as poor, marginalised and deprived. They too are deviant as they are unable to establish a coresspondence between means and end. There are the innovators who primarily use new methods, they stay away from culturally prescriptive means, they place more importance on goals, manipulate rules and laws. Drug indicts, corrupt politicians are of these categories.They ultimately become famous through violation of rules and laws by creating a space for them in the public sphere. Society gives them respect for their innovating ideas of goal accomplishment. In the fourth category are the retreatists who think conforming to norms cannot directly lead them to accomplishment of goal as goal is almost unattainable. So they reject both the goals and means. They become drug addicts, hippies and lose faith in the systems. In its place, they create a kind of new culture for themselves. Finally, there are those who think some of the rules and norms are not to be followed so they accept some and reject the others. They partly accomplish some goals by bringing about new rules. They are known as the rebellions. So what Merton tries to emphasise is that there is a gap between institutionalised prescribed norms and culturally designed goals. This gives rise to the existence of deviance.

To understand the dynamics of social change in India, Mertonian social theories help a lot. Talking about civil society movement one can talk about the movement against corruption. It can be fundamentally addressed by Merton’s sociology of deviance.There is a way of addressing coruption not by considering whether corruption is bad or good but the fundamental question is why corruption persists in society? How it addresses the needs of people in different way? What are the various dimensions of corruption? Also apart from corruption in India one can find various kinds of abnormal activities (crime, human trafficking, child labour, bonded labour, poverty, etc.). All these questions can best be explained by Merton’s theory of deviance and social structure.

Merton was not concerned in developing grand theories, but rather paid importance on empirical facts on the basis of synchronic data. According to Merton theories ought to explain the facts in a systematic manner. Without theory facts can’t have a systematic gathering of ideas. Hence theory provides a broad framework in the light of which we can understand facts in an organised and systematic manner.

Talking about reference group theory as mentioned above one can understand how an individual shapes his everyday life, how a group negotiates with another group, how a community interlinks itself with another community? We follow them in a distictive manner keeping in mind that oneday or the other we can reach into their position. As an example one can think of Jawaharlal Nehru who initiated development programme for India. He considered the developed countries as the point of reference by keeping multiple reference groups, borrowed ideas from Soviet Russia, capitalist America and consolidated them as per needs of the indigenous people of India. Nehru and Mahalanobis in turn brought out the idea of ‘mixed economy’ as the India’s root of development.

For Merton every individual lives in hope, ambition and believes that success is achievable in life. So the individual tries to find out a group of individual famous for their excellence. Hence different groups of people are acting as our different reference point. Also, within a particular reference group there may be multiple individuals. Without becoming a member, people follow the individual within that group. Systematically they follow the behaviour of that individual hoping that in future they will fit into that group the individual referred belonged to. This is called as anticipatory socialisation. Similarly, even though Gandhiji is dead many people consider Gandhian philosophy as their point of reference. Young people don Gandhi kurta, slippers and cap. This kind of behaviour can be a menifestation of anticipatory form of socialisation.This helps them in becoming a Gandhian leader and follower in future time. Likewise many children imitate the behaviour of parents which G.H. Mead argued is a form of anticipatory socialisation. Hence anticipatory socialisation enables the individual to experience the social mobility to negotiate with the future time changing positions in an effective manner.

Let’s talk about the negetive aspects of anticipatory socialisation. For example an individual prone to drug addiction often justifies her/his addiction by highlighting the ability of drugs to generate experiences of transcendence, self confidence etc. This celebration by the drug addicts often entices non-addicts into the gang of drug users. This is negative reference group.

Similarly talking about economic success, it can be observed few people are economically successful; but most of them have violated rules of law. They use different kinds of means to convert black money into white money and become extremely successful in life. However a person who strictly follows the rule of law does not become successful in life. When society celebrates those people who are the big achievers the conformists treat them as the point of reference. As a result they deviate from the normal path. They started violating the rule of the law and strive for easy way to success. That is how one criminal creates two more criminals, followed by many more. So, Merton argued that in every society there exist reference groups. They may be good professors, drug addicts, black money keepers, good journalists and nationalist leaders. Therefore whom one takes as the point of reference is of importance. One shapes his behaviour by taking them as their point of reference. Defines his personality and determines his course of future experience. As there are the presence of both positive and negative reference groups, some becomes conformists and others kinds of deviants. Hence being the student of Sociology our prime aim should be to understand how these reference groups make and shape personalities?

While talking about the reference group one should keep in mind that there are normative reference groups too. Norms, values, customs of particular values are appreciated. We never want to become a part of that reference group but we appreciate them as worthy. For example the brahmins in traditional India used to take bath early in the morning and performed series of ritual performances, giving importance on bodily purity. But there are many who may not be intereseted to become a Brahmin and follow the same kind of practices and regulations .So non-violence, morality fraternity, humanism are the norms propagated by Gandhiji. Many people follow these norms, but that does not mean that all of them become Gandhians. Without putting Gandhian cap, Kurta or participating in the nationalist movement they are accepting and internalising into this kind of Gandhian ideology.

Also, in every society there are present comparative reference groups. They are basically the great social activists.They have kept different persons as their point of reference. They try to imitate their behaviour and accordingly shape their personality. Also we can have referent power an important one to understand the dynamics of politics in contemporary India. In India the kin of people in powerful positions bask in the halo of their power. The relatives empower themselves with the power of the politician, he becomes the referent power. They exclaim ‘my father is this and this, my uncle is this and this’ to gain access to further benefits. These are the problems Merton highlights in his theory of reference group.There is a comparative advantage that a member of particular group find in other group.

7.  Summary

A few important points learnt in this chapter are summarised as follows:

• Most of his works reflect upon the role of the intellectuals in public bureaucracy, social responsibilities of technologists, and the role of applied social sciences in the formation of policy. His theoretical works deal with deviance, anomie, racial discrimination, marriage patterns, political machineries, propaganda and medical education.
• For Merton ‘function’ involves the standpoint of the observer and not necessarily that of the participant. Hence  a  social  function  refers  to  observable  objective  consequences  and  not subjective dispositions.
• Merton is believed to be the founder of this thesis of functionalism who identified new aspects of social life which are sociologically significant. He coined the term ‘neologism’ to designate them.
• The prime subject matter of Sociology has the following a Genetic, Functional, Static and Dynamic components.
• Hence for Merton, Sociology is the study of social structure.
• Mechanisms of Structure Building consists of a) Mechanism of accumulated dysfunctions and b) Mechanism of accumulated innovations
• The different types of functions are: Manifest, Latent and Dysfunctions. Manifest functions are ‘those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment or adaptation of the system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system’. By contrast, latent functions are ‘those which are neither intended nor recognized’. For Merton there are certain consequences those lessen the adaptation and adjustment of the system, he uses the term ‘dysfunction’ to explain this.
• The main features of Middle Range Theories are as follows: a) they are not directly inferred from experience  but  rather  themselves  generate  inferences  about  experience;  b)  These inferences ‘guide empirical inquiry’; and c) middle-range theories are limited in scope:
• Merton argues  there  are  different  categories  of  people.  There  are  conformists,  ritualists, innovators, retreatists, rebellions.

8.  References

• Merton,  R.K.  Social  Theory  and  Social  Structure.  New  York:  Free  Press,  1949  (revised edition,1968)
  • On the Shoulders of Giants. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays. New York: Free Press. 1976. Sztompka, On Social Structure and Science (ed.). Chicago: CUP. 1996.