7 Language and Education

Dr. Chandrashekhara Damle

epgp books
Introduction

 

When two or more persons meet in a given situation the process of recognising the other/s generally takes place either through the usage of words or symbols. If they belong to the same linguistic group they are aware of the meaning attached to the word or words that convey identification. For instance those who know English say ‘Hello’ to each another or inquire ‘how do you do?’ The conversation then continues using words known to those in a situation of interaction. However, if a new word enters into the conversation people generally tend to clarify its meaning and add it into their vocabulary after ascertaining its meaning. The horizons of language basically start expanding at a personal level.

 

Language however is generally introduced to us by elders in the family circle. As we grow older and our networks widen language is also learnt from our contacts in the neighbourhood and other social contexts in which we are involved. One such example is the kinship terminology which a child picks up from her/his familial networks at a very early age. Not only do these kinship terms convey a relationship, but also introduce the child to forms and patterns of behaviour associated with different types of relationship. This is one of the earliest exposures of an individual to language.

 

As children grow they realise that terminology used in day-to-day interaction differs from one language to another. The immediate environment serves as the first point of both knowledge acquisition and language learning. Over a period of time language becomes the source through which an individual learns about different incidents and issues that surround her/him. As one learns more words and their meanings, language usage becomes more effective. Initially language becomes a skill acquired by growing infants through the process of socialisation. The language used at home is called the ‘mother tongue’. More precisely, the mother is generally the first point of contact for the child and it is this contact which introduces language to the child. In this sense she is also the first educator. However, as contacts and networks widen, the child’s physical space also expands. Once the child enters the formal education zone, language becomes the key instrument of not only communication but also the means of gaining knowledge about the world around her/him. In fact there is a close connection between the development of human thought and language. Since language develops in a social context it also depends on the level of social development (Bates, 1976).

 

Various theorists attribute importance to different factors in the development of language. The nativist view (Chomsky, 1976) is that children are pre-programmed and have an innate capacity to acquire linguistic abilities.. Behaviourist thinkers give importance to the environment from which a child learns his/her language. Other theorists (P iaget, 1952; Vygotsky, 1962) viewed the development of language as a complex interaction between the child and the environment, which is influenced both by social and cognitive development. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that as children learn a language, they actively build a symbol system, which helps them to understand the world. They differed in their views on the interaction between language and thought. While Piaget believed that cognitive development led to the growth of language, Vygotsky viewed language as developing thought. He stressed on the importance of communication in language development. Vygotsky also gave due emphasis to the nature and content of interactions that children have with adults in determining the level of knowledge acquisition.

 

Language is an essential tool of education. In other words, language is the vehicle of knowledge and also transmission of culture. The aim of education is to impart knowledge to the younger generation, using language as the means of communication. If the teacher uses the same language known to the student, then learning becomes easy. In other words, information gets converted into knowledge effectively due to the ease with which both the teacher and taught can handle the teaching-learning process. The most effective mode of communication at the elementary school level is the regional language, which also generally happens to be the mother tongue. But one has to take note of the fact that in metros across India, which became home to corporate establishments, linguistic composition of the population become diverse and in schools that grew in large numbers, English became the language of education. With English being the recognised as the global language, today even in many rural schools English has emerged as the language of education (Kioko, 2015; Deepa, 2006).

 

Language and Dialect

 

Generally a language that people speak in family clusters, neighbourhood or in select settings is known as a dialect. It is a variant of a language spoken in a wider regional setting. A dialect may also have a vast vocabulary produced due to contact with the immediate socio-economic environment and kin relationships. There are unique words in local dialects to refer to persons, places or articles of day-to-day usage. The dialect is a symbol of a group’s identity and learnt by children in the natural contexts of family and community life. But language is a developed system that encompasses many dialects spoken in a specific region. For example, languages of India such as Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Punjabi, Marathi, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil etc. are composed of several dialects which are in use in different regions. However, it is not necessary that a dialect is exclusively a minor part of a single or particular language only. Generally it happens to be a mixed kindred of languages spoken in the neighbourhood. For instance, there are several tribal dialects which appear to be a blend of Hindi and Guajarati, Hindi and Marathi, Kannada and Malayalam, Kannada and Tamil. There is a large variety of dialects having Hindi words in large number. Similarly, we find that within a state language there are several dialects. Therefore it is said that dialects change every three miles. However, languages occupy a higher place as they grow with the evolution of culture and civilisation. Languages also grow to suit the needs of education and to describe society, history, economic activities, historical events and more significantly science and technology. Therefore, languages become the media of instruction and not the dialects.

 

The Relationship between Language and Education

 

There are two aspects of the relationship between language and education. The first considers it as an asset and the second treats it as an instrument. Every child in the school tries to gain mastery over the language of instruction as an asset in the beginning and later uses the same language as an instrument to further its interests.

 

Language as an Asset

 

Language is a complex system which encompasses forms of symbolic interactions such as gestures, signs, symbols, some sounds, pause etc. Children generally learn to speak the language of the region easily. Thus they enter into a context of bilingual skills which involves speaking fluently in one’s own dialect on the one hand and also in the regional language which happens to be the medium of education in school. Storytelling, skits and drama are the best activities to teach a language to children in the age group of 4-7 years. The stories which are designed for children generally contain conversations. The reading of such stories helps them to grasp a language easily. In classrooms children get opportunities to learn ways by which they can express themselves through the spoken language. However, the language which is the medium of instruction is taught with letters, words and sentences along with their pronunciations and grammar. Such an exercise is followed by writing skills acquired by children who would attempt to construct words and sentences by joining the letters. Thus they learn alphabetic symbols, grapho-phonemic relationships (letter–sound relationships), basic vocabulary and comprehension strategies (Halliday, 1980). This is also substantiated by writing sentences using their own imagination. As they grow up reading text books, story books, comics and literary works this reading enhances the ability of children in using language for effective communication. Thus language becomes an asset for a child and also forms an important ingredient of personality development.

 

Language as an Instrument

 

As children develop a sense of curiosity to understand their immediate natural environment and other social situations their language needs are also enhanced. They then make efforts to expand their horizon of language comprehension. The activities of reading and writing help the child to get a command over the use of language. The education system must take care of this process of infusing curiosity and providing opportunities of self expression through language. Teachers must play a key role in strengthening the language skills in children through conversation and clarification sessions. However, this is a very delicate responsibility because students must sustain their interest in asking and answering questions. Therefore, teachers should be aware of the ‘language of the question’ itself , thus involving students in spoken opportunities of self expression is a way as to help them make use of language as an instrument to gain more and more knowledge. The writing opportunities are still crucial because writing skills should be developed correspondingly with spoken skills.

 

The education system has a great responsibility in imparting language as a tool to gain knowledge. Students must be encouraged to read more books than those prescribed in the curriculum. Such motivation helps them to enjoy the nuances of the language, per se, and also the literature available in that language. Essay writing is an exercise that must actually instill creativity. They experience the real pleasure of employing their vocabulary to express their ideas. Therefore, the success of an educational enterprise rests on designing a curriculum that helps students to develop both their spoken and written language skills. Language thus becomes an instrument both for gaining and producing knowledge at higher educational levels.

 

School and Language

 

The school provides a space for children to exchange and enhance their language skills. The function and form of speech may vary significantly between the home and the school. In school, children coming from different class backgrounds bring with them their home language. They happen to learn many terms and concepts from their classmates in the course of interaction. However, from the education point of view there is a demand for precision, exposition, novelty, breadth of topics and transmission of information in the school. This is done through the language adopted as medium of instruction which may be the state language or English as in the case of many Indian schools.

 

Of course, knowledge increases with varied activities taking place in the school. As one passes through different situations and activities in school one acquires a new vocabulary. It is acquired from travel, reading books, meeting people, seeing different socio-economic conditions and by watching cultural differences. When the depth of vocabulary increases, invariably conceptual clarity develops. As children become more and more mature, their vocabulary gets organised and they learn to use appropriate words or concepts to analyse different situations. Inter-verbal associations are more rapid, more fluent, more specific and more predictable from the semantic and grammatical system. This high rate of mutual evocation of words may be a help in intelligence tests (Ibid, 10).

 

Cultural Nature of Language

 

Language is called the vehicle of culture. It is through language that people understand their culture. They are introduced to objects of day-to-day usage through language and this is their first introduction to the visible symbols of culture. As individuals grow up, the realisation that they have to understand the abstract elements of their culture such as customs, beliefs, values also dawns on them. Education is generally entrusted with the responsibility of transmitting values and practices associated with that culture and it is through language that this transmission takes place.

 

Since education is expected to conserve culture as well as create the atmosphere required for change, those involved in the teaching-learning process must realise the need to respect local cultures which also include the languages spoken by people practicing these cultures and also the objects and experiences that are part of their everyday life. But in many schools across the world there is no space for multilingualism and education is imparted in a language that many children do not easily comprehend. Also, their cultural artifacts or symbols have no place in the curriculum content. In such a set up they feel alienated and are likely to lose interest in education itself. However if an attempt is made to prepare text books by using words familiar to them not only would they feel comfortable in the classroom but also develop a sense of confidence in themselves. Such an attempt has been made in a few states in the country, but a more intense effort is required.

 

Cultural learning is one of the primary functions of education. It is through education that children imbibe the general values of their culture. Also multiple language learning exposes students to cultural diversity. One can understand cultural variations by learning new languages. Since education facilitates the learning of multiple languages in its curriculum scheme itself children are exposed to new cultural frontiers. Therefore language itself is treated as a branch of culture because languages are learned, not transmitted genetically.

 

Language and Curriculum

 

The place of language in academic curriculum varies according to the level and goals of the educational system. Educational programmes for young children generally emphasise on language learning. Since the thrust is on acquainting them with the world around them instructional programmes emphasise on developing spoken language skills. At the elementary level the main feature of a curriculum is the reading of stories designed for young children. They may also have opportunities to learn how to express themselves through a written language, including opportunities to learn new letters, words, sentences, and text structures, and also how to put together a written story.

 

In schools and colleges teachers and students use spoken and written language to communicate with each other. The learning process involves presentation of tasks, engagement with academic content, assessment of learning, exposition of knowledge and display of skills. All these are dependent on the acquisition of language skills particularly in reading the prescribed text books. However, it is important to cultivate the habit of reading general books, newspapers and other information sources if one wants to expand both his/her knowledge as well as language base. The entire process of understanding the curriculum and applying its contents to one’s own field or life takes place only by sharpening one’s linguistic skills.

 

According to M. A. K. Halliday, the relationship between language and education can be divided into three heuristic categories:

·     Learning a language

·         Learning through language and

·         Learning about language.

 

Learning a Language

 

In their early years, children learn a spoken language. They associate the images with names of objects and persons. They learn terms to identify the socio-cultural surroundings at home and outside. In school children need to extend the spoken skills by using short stories and rhymes and such other means that are easy to comprehend. The writing skills are acquired much later. They need consistent practice to acquire writing skills. Mental abilities of learners are enhanced by writing and in this process their mastery over the language as well as the subject deepens.

 

Learning a language for purposes of speaking and learning the same for purposes of writing are two different experiences. Since all learners are not exposed to similar home and neighbourhood environments their capacities to learn a language differ. Teachers need to put in extra effort in the case of those learners who are not familiar with the language of education. In fact in such cases teaching the essence of a language through which knowledge is being transmitted is more of a critical challenge than the actual content itself.

 

On the other hand, in the case of learners who are inherently energetic as language learners and possess a unique capacity to imbibe linguistic skills, schools are expected to create a stimulating language environment and provide them with the tools they need to develop their spoken and writing skills. Although teachers provide instruction the methodologies adopted in the classroom must relate to students’ needs and interests. It must also be remembered that students must be allowed to engage in multi-lingual activities so as to give them a sense of comfort that speaking in their mother tongue or in a local dialect is acceptable.

 

Learning through Language

 

The language learnt in the initial years of schooling supports the learning that takes place in classrooms. Teachers explain or lecture, ask questions, involve children in discussions, and assign reading and writing tasks. Students engage in academic tasks by participating in classroom sessions, listening to teachers’ lectures, reading and writing, comprehending the subject matter, giving verbal and written answers to teachers’ questions, and attending student presentations, peer group discussions and memorising the written text. This is a procedural way of learning through language that is in practice since many years in the formal educational system.

 

There are several language exercises to build knowledge as well as share that knowledge with others. Using flash-cards is a method that helps young children to develop narrative performance skills. Each card contains a word which a teacher shows and asks children to describe it. The words are presented depending on the age and ability of children to speak-out. The flash cards are arranged in such a way as to attempt topic coherence, sequencing of events, structuring narrative events, and adjusting a narrative to an audience. This exercise is also known as sharing time where teacher and students take part together in building language capabilities and knowledge enhancement. Such a method shows the close connection that exists between education, language and cultural variation.

 

The opportunity to learn through a language in a class room situation depends on a broad range of factors that include class, race, caste, gender, linguistic background etc. While some students seek out opportunities to engage in an interaction with the teacher in the classroom, others either remain silent or speak only when asked to speak. There are also those who experience a sense of diffidence to speak in a class room in which the language of communication is different from that of their mother tongue. In the case of such students, learning through a language which is not their comfort zone is not a conducive experience. It is in this context that the need for a teacher to possess multiple linguistic abilities needs to be discussed.

 

Learning about a Language

 

Classroom practices for language learning range from the study of just spelling and grammar to the study of literatures in different languages. In the current educational scenario when there are tremendous pressures on teachers for completion of the curriculum and students to strive for success in examinations there may not be much scope for learning about a language which is the teaching-learning medium. In many disciplines, such as for example engineering and pure sciences the emphasis is not so much on learning the subtleties associated with the language of expression as it is on the content. But in disciplines dealing with human subjects, language is as important as the content, because it is the chief instrument of capturing the essence of the subject under study. It is however needless to say that learning about a language is a very fascinating field of study that opens up new vistas of knowledge on the socio-historical processes that led to the growth and development of that language and the nature of impact these processes had on the system of education itself.

 

It is also true that time and again the issue of the importance of language in education has come up for serious discussion. In the recent past many leading employers of engineering and science graduates have been arguing for the inclusion of language learning in the curriculum because they feel that the younger generation has grown up ignoring the importance of language. In fact the thrust being placed on building one’s communication skills is proof of the growing importance attached to language learning both in formal and non-formal settings.

 

When we speak of the importance of language learning in formal school settings, we must refer to the debate over the type of language to be used in academic communication. With mobile phones and other social media dominating the world of communications, symbols and short forms are replacing the traditional ways of language usage. It is not uncommon to see the usage of what is referred to as ‘computer language’ even in academic presentations and writings. Whether this is the right approach or not is one of the key questions that are going to affect educational practice in future.

 

Medium of Instruction

 

Due to increasing opportunities for physical and social mobility, in the recent past it has become almost imperative for those seeking social mobility to move into a multi-lingual space. The need to learn more than one language is being increasingly felt today because of changes taking place in the employment market. This is an important issue in countries where immigrant groups have to strike a balance between the native language and the language of the country to which they have migrated. For example, in all multi-cultural societies there is a debate that surrounds the issue of language learning by children whose native tongue is not English. Some educators place the sole emphasis on learning English where as others advocate a bi-lingual approach. While protagonists of the mother tongue advocate the theory that education must be imparted in a language with which the child is familiar, proponents of the ‘immersion approach’ believe that the learner must adopt himself/herself to English which happens to be the medium of education.

 

With increasing enrollment of rural and first generation learners into higher education the issue of medium of education is assuming serious proportions in India. More and more learners are now using the mother tongue/ regional language to write their examinations both at the undergraduate and master’s level. Doctoral dissertations are also being written in the mother tongue. While some universities permit academic activities to take place in a bi-lingual or multi-lingual space others do not. Referring to this dichotomy that exists in higher education and with a special focus on sociology Desai and Gogate (2011:186) have observed that “our university departments of sociology, in fact all social sciences need to become bilingual if not multi-lingual. Both English and the regional language should find a place in the processes of learning, teaching, and research in these departments. English, which holds the key to the vast fund of international knowledge, is essential for maintaining communication between world sociology and Indian sociologists. The regional language is important for the equally vital communication between Indian sociologists and Indian society at large. The communication between the intellectual elite and the common man is an essential condition for the survival and success of democracy to which we are committed. To be able to achieve this communication and to assess and contribute to the social and sociological thought shaping in the world of Indian languages, students and teachers of sociology have to know the regional language with a certain degree of proficiency”. It is thus very important for all those concerned to pay serious attention to this issue at least now.

 

Crisis of Medium of Instruction

 

At the school level the issue of English vs. the mother tongue as the medium of instruction is reaching a situation of crisis because of the enormous increase that is taking place in the number of private schools across the country. With a majority of these schools offering instruction in English medium, parents feel that their wards have a bright future ahead and would be ensured of well-paying jobs if they are enrolled in these schools. Rural and poor parents mostly send their children to government schools because they are not in a position to send their children to private schools that offer English medium education. But recent experiences have shown that many parents are making sacrifices to send their wards to private schools because their trust in the state run school system is on the decline. With the issue of medium of instruction now reaching the courts a viable alternative is nowhere in sight.

 

The language policy of the state governments entails that the state language/ mother tongue should be the medium of instruction up to 4th standard. But this rule has been opposed by the union of private schools and the matter came up before the apex court. The judgment by a constitutional bench of the Supreme Court (see Tukdev, 2014) offers a significant turn in a series of long-standing dilemmas on the language policy. Thinking through the questions of medium of instruction in the light of the constitutional scheme, the judgment involves four important points. Adhering to a rather narrow interpretation of the term “mother tongue” the judgment holds that in the context of the Constitution, mother tongue would mean “the language of the linguistic minority in a state” and it would be the child or the parents who will have decisive power to declare their language as the mother tongue. Second, the bench also holds that “the child, or, on his behalf, his parent or guardian, has a right to freedom of choice with regard to the medium of instruction in which he would like to be educated at the primary stage in school.” Considering a liberal interpretation of the terms “freedom of expression’’ the judgment holds that the right to freedom of speech includes the freedom of a child to be educated in a language of “the choice of the child”. Finally, the judgment holds that the state cannot impose mother tongue as a medium of instruction (Tukdev, 2014). Thus, the verdict privileges Article 19 over others and foregrounds individual liberty and choice as primary drivers of access to education.

 

The judgment, however, does not engage with issues of pedagogy, educational philosophy and instructional practices. Research on the right to education has maintained that familiarity with school language is crucial in enrolments and progress in early years and while the verdict does not counter this position, it seeks to enable an element of choice in education. In the same line, the judgment suggests a shift in the state’s role as ‘loco parentis’ and goes on to re-order the power of authority in education. Language continued to occupy centre stage in the story of India’s formal education as well and its steady expansion over the course of the last century. Despite the tradition of plurilingual pedagogic practices and an outpouring of research on the importance of home-language(s) in education, the place of language remains contested and forever unresolved. Given that considerations of employability, higher educational opportunities and regional pride increasingly govern the perceptions of language in education, no policy decision can confine itself to educational ideals alone (Ibid).

 

The ‘new jobs’ that were created by the bourgeoning IT sector in India during the last two decades brought forth the need for the workforce to move into a multi-lingual space and the knowledge of English was no longer considered a luxury. The desire to achieve upward social mobility and move into job spaces that were hitherto unknown resulted in an increasing demand for English medium schools not only in urban areas but also in peripheral villages. While recognising the positive dimensions of this development there is an urgent need to engage in a public debate on negative implications of this spread on the quality of education and the future of state schools.

 

End Note

 

Language is a critical input for acquiring not only academic knowledge but also knowledge about the world around us. But in a multi-lingual world the opportunity to acquire multi- lingual abilities are not equally available to all groups. This is one of the critical challenges which those who are engaged in the task of knowledge transmission through education have to face. In a world where both social and physical barriers are gradually breaking and the employment market is becoming more diverse, acquisition of multi-lingual abilities becomes a necessity. How does the educational system handle this situation? How does educational policy address the intricate cultural factors involved in English vs. mother tongue as the medium of instruction? It is hoped that the contents of this module would help the reader to locate answers to these questions.

you can view video on Language and Education

References

 

 

Additional Reading

  • Bloome, David. 2002. “Language and Education.” Encyclopedia of Education. Encyclopedia.com
  • Goodman, Yetta. 1984. “The Development of Initial Literacy.” In Awakening to Literacy, ed. Hillel Golman, Antoinette Oberg, and Frank Smith. Exeter, NH: Heinemann.
  • Green, James Paul. 1983. “Exploring Classroom Discourse: Linguistic Perspectives on Teaching-Learning Processes.” Educational Psychologist 18:180–199.
  • Mercer, Neil. 1995. The Guided Construction of Knowledge: Talk amongst Teachers and Learners.
  • Clevedon, Eng. : Multilingual Matters.
  • Michaels, Sarah. 1986. “Narrative Presentations: An Oral Preparation for Literacy with First Graders” In The Social Construction of Literacy, ed. Jenny Cook-Gumperz. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press.
  • O’Conner, Mary Catherine, and Michaels, Sarah. 1993. “Aligning Academic Task and Participation Status through Revoicing: Analysis of a Classroom Discourse Strategy.” Anthropology and Education Quarterly 24:318–335.
  • Perry, Theresa, and Delpit, Lisa, eds. 1998. The Real Ebonics Debate: Power, Language, and the
  • Education of African-American Children. Boston: Beacon Press.
  • Street, Brian. 1998. “New Literacies in Theory and Practice: What Are the Implications for Language in Education. ” Linguistics and Education 10:1–34.