33 Indigenous Modes of Education

Dr. K G Gayathri Devi

Introduction

In the various forms and ways of learning and gaining knowledge about things and factors that facilitate better and sustainable livelihoods for themselves, human beings have adopted certain modes and processes. The formal modes of learning or education are offered in established institutions through a standard curriculum, teachers, regular class hours, examinations and so on. Likewise, there is also the informal learning process, which sociologists and social anthropologists have attributed to the family as one of its primary duties towards grooming the young.

The focus of this module lies not in discussing these formal and informal modes of education or learning but to understand the mode of education or learning (in terms of what forms the content of such learning; its utility towards one’s cultural setting, lifestyle etc.). Right from pre-historic times till today, human society is continuously engaged in testing and learning in its struggle towards better and more refined adaptation to the environment or nature where it is positioned. Modern, more importantly global societies have placed greater significance upon pedagogical systems that train a child to acquire such skills and knowledge that enable him/her to achieve social mobility. Thus, learning is facilitated through the use of certain aids like listening, talking (answering), testing, discussing and experimenting – all being part of the education process or system.

Education does not just mean learning of alphabets and mathematics, but it actually means learning the skills and ways of earning one’s livelihood. However, these livelihoods are varied and are pursued in response to a society’s cultural systems and in different geographical locations, such as for example tribal or rural. Thus, education includes a culture’s values, beliefs, skills, ideas, and practices. These used to be passed on from generation to generation – from adults and seniors to the young – through oral traditions (folkways, storytelling, plays etc) and imitation. While traditional communities practiced these as their systems of spreading life experiences and knowledge, the modern (industrial and technical) societies introduced teaching skills using different pedagogical systems that brushed aside the traditional modes as outdated and less scientific.

History of Educational Institutions

Historically, we come across three very significant milestones in the history of educational systems and institutions. It was Plato’s ‘Academy’ in Athens, which is acclaimed as the first higher educational institution in Europe. Another was the Library of Alexandria (Egypt) of the 330BCE described as the ‘intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece’. Nearer home, in China, Confucius spread an educational outlook as the most popular philosopher of the country, who was in fact searching for principles of good governance. The educational system in East Asia has benefited much from these principles. The Fall of Rome led to the rise of the Roman Catholic Church that took over education and literary advancement in Western Europe1. The Middle East became the Home for learning in Islamic Science and Mathematics. With the Renaissance period in Europe a series of innovative intellectual inquiries began to flourish. The invention of the printing press in 1450 further facilitated spread of arts, science, literature, philosophy, religion and epistemology. Further, the Age of Enlightenment saw the setting up of educational institutions with a ‘secular outlook’.

1  University of Boulogne was the first university founded in 1088

Modern Societies and Education

Having been introduced thus, education is mostly provided through formal means in all countries of the world today, in a structured environment, through formal pedagogical means. The modern education system rests upon a set of values or ideals based on a belief system characterising the way a child’s intellect should flourish to meet a certain need, primarily economic – to make it eligible for employment purposes. The school environment is associated with the concept of class rooms, teachers, curriculum, an organization, hours of learning or teaching, examinations and patterns of assessment and so on.

Beginning with pre-schools and then continuing through primary, secondary and higher secondary, education progresses to a system of imparting life skills and knowledge in select fields, which is known as higher education2. Here an adolescent is exposed to the process of acquiring a higher level of knowledge with a stress on specialisation. Often, it also diverts as vocational education and training for those who do not want a long stint in a formal institution of education. Several countries have separate ministries to look after different levels of education and huge sums are allocated to encourage and reach the socially excluded and alienated sections of society (children) to access the fruits of educational infrastructure and programmes. Major problems being faced by less developed societies 3 are being tackled keeping formal education as the panacea. Social mobility aspirations of middle and lower classes (also, castes in India) and of women, minorities and other vulnerable sections are blended with such educational attainments, with the hope that they would enable removal of disabilities and facilitate a rise in their socio-economic status. Trans border migration of students aspiring for a higher economic status, lucrative salaries and better quality of life is also a common feature of modern educational practices4. There are also those who seek quick returns from education and prefer job centric courses5.

Besides these, there is also special education for disabled children and adults 6 managed by special teachers or trainers. There is also what is known as ‘alternative education’, which, as argued by some has existed from a long time. The reason behind its genesis was the discontentment with the existing educational system7. Mention is also made of self learning, home schooling and unschooling. A number of approaches emerged as a result of continued interest and thinking about what should be the norm in education. Examples are experiments in early childhood education continued well into the 19th and 20th centuries in Germany, Switzerland, England, France, and so on8.

Indigenous Education

The emphasis in this type of education is on the term ‘indigenous’. The word refers to something that is one’s own and self acquired or self learnt and self owned, where the owner is also invested with the rights to use it according to his/her convenience and even make alterations in it. The argument behind the efforts of those who are striving to popularise indigenous education or knowledge system is

2   Or Tertiary Education

3   Such as poverty and discrimination towards women and other weaker sections in India

4   Or aspiring to do so

5   Carpentry, engineering, agriculture, architecture etc.

6   People with disabilities

7  There are a number of them, such as self-learning, Montessori Education, Open Education

System/Schools and the Krishnamurti Foundation (The Valley School) in India, etc.

8   Mention must be made of founders of progressive education such as John Dewey and pioneers in

education such as John Caldwell Holt and Ivan Illich that “sophisticated knowledge of the natural world is not confined to science. Human societies all across the globe have developed rich sets of experiences and explanations relating to the environments they live in. These ‘other knowledge systems’ are today often referred to as traditional ecological knowledge or indigenous or local knowledge. They encompass the sophisticated arrays of information, understandings and interpretation that guide human societies around the globe in their innumerable interactions with the natural milieu; in agriculture and animal husbandry; hunting, fishing and gathering; struggles against disease and injury; naming and explanation of natural phenomena; and strategies to cope with fluctuating environments” 9.

What is Indigenous Knowledge?

Indigenous Knowledge or Indigenous Education (IK/IE) is defined as ‘local’ knowledge which is the treasure of a given society and its culture. It is its cultural capital10. Hence, it is passed on from one generation to another, chiefly or solely by word of mouth, practices, rituals, arts and crafts and a number of other aspects of daily life. Almost all aspects of life11 of the individuals in that society contribute to such accumulation of knowledge and learning. Local life experiences are used to learn survival and adaptation to the challenges of life. Sustainable life is the focus here12. Indigenous education is not informal learning alone but relates to the recognition and acquisition of traditional skills and knowledge that have been demolished or made redundant due to the introduction of modern systems of education.

Arguments and Explanations in support of IE

The fundamental argument in support of IE or IK is that the nearly 350 million indigenous people of the world have been historically subjected to exclusion, expulsion and exploitation from groups enjoying political or economic power. The process has basically alienated them from their own lands and habitation (in the forest and hilly areas) forcing them not only to become dispossessed of their livelihoods but also lose all their cultural treasure and accumulated knowledge base. Besides total loss of cultural identity the main impact is on their economic survival strategies that were built over a long period of adaptation to the environment where they have lived for generations.

This being the form of indigenous knowledge accumulation and usage, it is now pertinent to focus attention on the situation in India in the pre-independence period as far as the education system was concerned. The pre-British educational scenario comprised of the presence of educational institutions strongly reflecting the caste and religious divisions in the country. The Muslims patronised what are called as Maktabs and Madrasas while the Hindus studied in temple schools or Patashalas13. The Muslim children studied in these Madrasas14 which followed a system of teaching-learning that was considered appropriate for the times. The ways of imparting knowledge and its contents also varied from one group to another.

9. Nakashima D & others (2000)

10 It is also called as local knowledge, folk knowledge, people’s knowledge, traditional wisdom and

traditional science.

11   Such as agriculture, home based food preparation, processing and preservation, health care, professions

and learning, skill formation and adaptation, etc.

12 Bates P, & others (2009); IFAD (2003).

13 Referred also as the Tolls in West Bengal and Agrahars in Southern India

14 Also referred to as Quranic Schools

The chief characteristics of Hindu schools teaching/transferring indigenous skills and knowledge were: single teacher, Sanskrit or native languages as medium of instruction and generally supported by endowments from kings and nobles or parents of students. The teacher in many cases also used to be the priest of the local temple. The premises of a temple, house of the teacher or a common shed in the neighbourhood was the place where indigenous education was imparted. The teacher often hailed from the Brahmin community and imparted education to pupils depending on their own socio-economic background15 and utility of such education or learning to their future life. Children of upper castes and upper classes formed the majority in these Gurukulas. Memorisation of sacred texts and completion of tasks assigned by the teacher were used to test the students’ abilities and accomplishments and their cognitive potential. 16. This could be described as acquisition of cultural capital17 which was used by children later in life for successful survival and gaining socio-economic status in the community. With flexible rules governing admission and course duration in these schools, the Shishyas were able to learn the required skills in an open environment, practicing the knowledge they acquired during their entire life course.

The above system began to decay in the beginning of the 19th century itself when indigenous modes of knowledge transfer suffered a setback. This primarily happened because many kingdoms that supported the cause of indigenous education were vanquished by colonial rulers. The indigenous system of education system in India, thus, collapsed under the weight of western education imparted in schools and colleges established under colonial rule. Many new schools were not only founded, but also nurtured by Christian missionaries, who expanded these in both plains and forest areas, also covering the tribal population. Indigenous education which was culturally codified gradually started losing ground.

Critiques of modern education stem mainly from those sectors and persons who advocate that children and youth must be educated in their own cultures, that too using indigenous language and cultural symbols or signals. These protagonists of indigenous knowledge feel that not only the content and pedagogy of education has changed and is biased towards modern urban societies, but also that indigenous communities are eliminated from any participation in designing the courses. They are discriminated and targeted. The current scenario, according to the supporters of IE is that the youth in indigenous communities today are alienated from their own base. This alienation is being experienced in various aspects of life of these communities. Modern education introduced by the British roughly during the 1830s and 1870s was characterised by centrality of text books and examinations. In the place of local knowledge, the new curriculum included teaching and learning in English or other languages and contents mostly included western concepts and practices. This process which is generally attributed to the missionaries continued with the support of local rulers, social reformers and many in the British administration. From the students’ point of view, western education was considered primarily a gate way to lucrative employment. Education became more and more text book centric and there was little or no place for experience centered knowledge, which was the hallmark of indigenous modes of education.

The above transformation from the ‘old’ to the ‘ new’ led to significant reforms in education. Beginning with a rejection of indigenous knowledge by the colonial rulers, the new idea faced certain distinctive reactions from nationalists and reformers in India. To begin with, the importance of

15  Such as warring skills, sword fight, wrestling etc to the sons from Kshatriya or Ruling clan, and sanskritic

education in learning and understanding the sacred texts, like Vedas, Upanishads, Shastras, Smritis,

Shruthis, Yoga and Yagas etc.

16 Additional reading: Greenfield & Lave, 1982, Wood, Bruner & Ross 1974.

17 Used by Bourdieu later, 1974. digenous Vedantic philosophy and practice was supported by Swami

Vivekananda for purposes of character and confidence building. Ravindranath Tagore also reacted to the

change noting that the colonial type of education was alienating the youth from their culture and

emphasised on education that gave importance to arts and crafts. Among other reformers, it was Mahatma

Jyothiba Phule who insisted upon extending or directing the goal of education to include deprived sections

such as dalits and women and wanted it to be useful to them in escaping from age old shackles of servitude

to upper castes and classes and build their personalities with freedom, self confidence, justice, equality of

access and opportunities, and self assertion to make an independent living. Unfortunately in the period after

independence, although these new values upholding indigenous values and goals of education were asserted

in the first one or two decades, in subsequent decades indigenous education received attention and

appreciation which bordered on mere tokenism18. It is not out of context to mention here that both the

concepts and practices associated with indigenous education need to be discussed in the framework of

alternate education paradigms that have been advocated by scholars of different genres.

There is thus a difference in the point of view of protagonists of indigenous system of education and those who advocate western ideology based modern system of education. The former contest the utility of the latter by arguing that it has disrupted the adoption of knowledge acquired through everyday experiences. Knowledge is described by the former as the new agent of power and legitimate knowledge19. Cultural domination was being demonstrated now in a new route, i.e., knowledge transfer. Community-based learning was thus destroyed with the imposition and superiority of colonial mode of education20. Studies carried out in this direction21 have observed that the new schooling system of independent India had virtually replaced the traditional system and an European model of common education was brought in to impact all. Although it was labeled universal education, the benefits went strategically only to a minority affluent upper caste and class Indians. But the larger negative impact was the devaluing of local or traditional/indigenous knowledge. The feeling was that the strengths of indigenous learning were not being recognised. These strengths were identified to be:

·       Group learning or cooperative learning with a scope for an inclusive environment

·       Observation

·       Imitation

·       Narratives-Story telling

·       Collaboration

·       Cooperation

·       Learning through inclusion

·       Teacher-student interactions

·       Inclusion

·       Motivation

·       Assessment by self

The advantages of indigenous education are now gaining a new recognition and visibility in many quarters. At the same time the need for the young in indigenous communities to get access to modern education cannot be overruled. Children from local communities are placed in a situation where they have to absorb modern methods of teaching-learning and in the process are being alienated

18 Sarangapani, P M (1990)

19 Kumar 2000; Chakraborty 2002

20  Ashcroft, et al 1995

21 Kumar 1991; Pathak 2002; Sarkar 2000 from their traditional knowledge base. Ancient wisdom and indigenous knowledge are losing their hold on tribal societies and the autonomy in learning and its application which they enjoyed are now being considered non-utilitarian.

Though it is very important to recognise and support indigenous education based on traditional practices, one cannot totally devalue the benefits of modern ‘western’ education for indigenous communities. The problem arises because of the changed situation in which they are placed today. With the loss of livelihoods and destabilisation caused by deforestation and decay of many rural and traditional occupations indigenous communities today are caught in a compulsive need to accept and adopt modern practices. The acquisition of traditional skills and knowledge about survival strategies are, more or less, not useful in the new set up where they are now placed. They are often forced to migrate from their traditional habitats in search of livelihoods, and their children, in the present circumstances cannot manage their life with indigenous knowledge only. This has to be viewed in a positive sense keeping the changing socio-cultural context of contemporary times.

Indigenous communities being vulnerable also lack the economic and political power to influence policy making. It is not easy to replace modern education with an indigenous one. Indigenous groups expect education to build their capacities to seek better life chances and provide the economic and cultural capital required to survive in the modern, industrialised, now global cities and towns. They expect to be absorbed into urban occupations as rural and tribal areas do not offer them sustainable livelihoods today. Education is looked upon as a means of rising up from poverty, squalor and marginalised status. Many governments in the global era have been successfully incorporating multicultural values in their educational curriculum. This has to be viewed in a positive sense keeping the changing socio-cultural context of contemporary times.

In India, in particular, programmes after 1990 have been more oriented to indigenous ways of teaching but the syllabus and pedagogy continue to be designed on the colonial model. In this country’s context, the emphasis has been upon removing the disabilities of children from marginalised groups, which stand in their way of accessing any education. Social mobility for these groups and to those hitherto alienated from development is embarked upon, strongly, on a tight knit western education model with emphasis on English language, pedagogy to match the west for higher learning, competitiveness to match the demands of (or challenges of) globalisation and privatisation.

There are several practical challenges in including indigenous education into the regular English education curriculum. Some authors have described it as an ‘ongoing process of cultural negotiation’. Like the Chinese Na education, in India the Sarva Shiksha Abhyan (SSA) programme initiated in the last decade emphasises upon ‘play and learn’. Learning atmosphere is informal, and learning aids are not only books but local cultural artifacts, pictures, paintings and objects. Playing is converted as learning exercises to simplify the task. Building strong mental ability along with physical health and growth is the aim of modern education in India today particularly at the initial (primary school) levels. Vocational education and training at a slightly later stage inculcates in the young minds the ideas and values about practice of traditional occupations. Examples here are weaving, carpentry, use of medicinal and other utilitarian plants and herbs, etc. These skills are taught to enable them to seek income generation opportunities in areas with which they are familiar.

Tribals in India and Indigenous Education

The tribals in India are grouped constitutionally under the Scheduled Tribe (ST) category under Art.366 (25) and labeled as ST (Art, 342). There are 700 different groups of tribals living in India and they form more than 8 per cent of the country’s population. Tribals have been labeled variously and the more popular terms are ‘vanavasis’, ‘adivasis’, ‘girijans’ ‘aboriginals’, ‘janajatis’ etc. Their decadal population growth rate is higher than (31.64 %) that of the general population (23.51%). The sex ratio among the STs is 999 females per 1000 males (much higher than the national average (943 females per 1000 males). The STs have registered 63 per cent literacy according to the National Sample Survey (NSS) 66th Round data.

To help them overcome the large scale socio-economic deprivation, exclusion and marginalisation that they have faced in the past/continue to face even today, Scheduled Tribes (STs) are being supported through a number of government policies and programmes. As early as in the 5th Five Year Plan itself some of these policies were introduced, chiefly under what was called as ‘Tribal Sub Plan’. Elementary Education became a priority area as education of tribal children was considered a critical input in the overall development of tribal communities. In 1986, yet another progressive step that was initiated was the passing of the National Policy on Education (NPE) to accord priority to opening of schools in tribal-dominated pockets; develop curricula and devise instructional material in local (tribal) language in the initial stages of their education and to establish ashram schools/residential schools on a large scale in tribal areas. Because of these efforts, there is progress in tribal children’s education, retention rates, reduction in drop out rates etc. Studies22 have pointed towards high gender disparity in accessing education among tribal population. Even here, with government’s efforts, there is an improvement over the decades.

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has introduced a number of strategies and approaches to achieve Universal Elementary Education (UEE) with a special focus on tribal children by considering them as ‘special focus group’ (SFG)23 . It has categorised the problems of ST children as being external, internal, socio-economic and psychological. The programmes specially designed with an eye on encouraging indigenous learning are:

·       Setting up of tribal schools in their own surroundings (in their habitations –forest and hilly regions).

·       Establishment of alternate schools in areas with dense tribal populations.24

·       Preparation of text books in mother tongue for these children at primary level itself.

·       Designing a curriculum with locally relevant teaching materials and teaching skills.

·       Appointment of specially trained teachers with knowledge of tribal dialect.

·       Deployment of Local teachers.

·       Preparation of school curriculum and calendar based on local festivals and requirements.

·       Setting up of anganawadi centres, and crèches in every school.25

·       Paying special attention to children of nomadic and migratory households.

·       Appointment of community volunteers to work along with tribal parents focusing on the child’s needs in

education and health care.

22 Sujatha (2000)

23 The other FGs are children from SC communities, urban deprived children, working children, children

with special needs and disabilities, children from Below Poverty Level households and migrating children.

24  To cater to the educational needs of school dropout children, children with special needs and non-

enrolled children of tribal households.

25 So that girl children are relieved from sibling care duties that prevent them from their own schooling

·       Encouraging a sense of ‘ownership’ of the school by the community by setting up of VECs, SDMCs and

PTAs as per the design of the SSA.

·        Encouraging local tribal men and women to join as teachers.

Efforts by SSA to reach Tribal Children

In order to avoid the sense of alienation they experience, tribal populations have been provided opportunities to study in schools set up close to their habitat (96% in Mizoram). This is a positive move in the direction of respecting indigenous livelihoods. The other schools are also within 1 km radius of the habitation. Ashram schools are residential in type and present in most of the tribal dominated states.

The state and central Tribal Welfare Departments converge with other related departments to plan and implement the various tribal development programmes. Every effort has been made to establish synergy in out-reach activities, curriculum, text books, school choice, examination pattern and so on. Mother tongue is strongly advocated to be used as the medium of instruction in early stages of education. Many state governments are making efforts to prepare text books for elementary level classes in tribal dialects26. Assam was the first state to prepare such learning material in the local language27. Multi-level and indigenous knowledge-based kits have been prepared to teach mathematics to tribal children in Andhra Pradesh28. Gujarat has developed dictionaries in Dangi and Bhili dialects. Thus, SSA has provided a number of opportunities to promote education through indigenous modes of learning, if not replacing the modern education with the completely traditional one.

Indigenous modes of teaching the tribal (and non-tribal) children includes use of local art/folk forms, organizing meetings of mothers, community representatives and teachers, preparation of demonstration material in local language, using local material – leaflets, posters, Kalajathas, video cassettes in local languages, organizing tribal fairs, festivities, ‘haats’ (bazaars) and documenting tribal and other indigenous knowledge in the sectors of health conservation through traditional medicine, culture through local folklore, history and agricultural and other economic activities/practices.

Conclusion

Education is considered a long term investment to end structural and basic inequalities among people. Indigenous communities have the right to access education, but that form of learning which will not destabilise their social organisation and livelihood bases and make them inferior to others. Their right to access education and learning in their own languages and cultures is upheld by world organisations like the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) (UN 2008). The emphasis in these indigenous modes of education is against imposition and infliction of values and knowledge that harm native communities and their cultures and traditions.

26 Like the text book for class I and II for children from the Soliga (a tribe) in Karnataka; Madhya Pradesh’s

efforts to prepare text books in 3 tribal languages – Gondi, Kuduk and Bhili.

27  For the Bodos in 1995

28  In tribal dense Warangal and Vijayanagaram districts (now in Telangana and AP states)

Efforts have been made to achieve reduction in the divide between indigenous and non-indigenous populations as regards educational advancement beyond post secondary education where there is a serious gap between the two. Disparities in accessing university education continue even with the efforts of programmes like the SSA, Integrated Tribal Development Programme and Tribal Sub Plan. Colonial rule and its impact are blamed for earlier educational policies. The policies of the 1990s in particular, witnessed far reaching changes in the pedagogy and other aspects of education from primary to higher levels. Emphasis is now being placed upon reaching education to the people/children without drastically disturbing them from their own roots and culture. The new education method gives importance to non-formal teaching methods, teaching of local stories, learning games and hands-on-exercises that revitalize indigenous knowledge. The local community is brought close to the whole process of learning and teaching with the setting up of community based organisations like the School Development Management Committees for every school in all the villages and tribal pockets. Such inclusion of traditional methods in schools is expected to enhance educational effectiveness for both the indigenous and non-indigenous groups and communities. For the former, it is likely to prepare them to undergo the transition from their native culture to the advanced or new culture of the modern, industrialised and globalised societies. For the latter, such exposure to traditional aspects of one’s own society through learning indigenous perspectives, language, experiences and folkways is expected to promote respect and recognition about cultural diversities. It is the expectation of some scholars that such education is also hopefully helpful in reducing ethnic and religious differences and enables a holistic and homogenous learning atmosphere that may continue later in life to lead to greater conformity and consensus in societal living.

The realisation of the advantages of indigenous modes of education is now spreading in most countries. Besides governmental efforts, a number of voluntary agencies have been active in promoting the cause of such education. It is used as one of the critical strategies for social inclusion and mainstreaming of hitherto excluded-alienated-vulnerable communities. Besides these, it is considered as a method of bringing together the diverse cultures of a society into one stream for a unified and holistic development. Communalism, perennialism and group cohesion are highlighted as advantages of this type of education (Sifuna, Daniel 2008).

A major setback to this effort to indigenise education is the growing cultural stagnation and the spread of consumerism as the hall mark of modern day living. Education is marketed today for better lifestyles. Globalisation has eroded traditional occupations and livelihood options and indigenous communities have been the worst sufferers here. ‘Standardisation’ and ‘hegemonisation’ are the twin features of modern globalised societies. The complexities of the post-modern society, and in particular of globalization and its other processes (liberalisation, privatisation and the market led economy) dominated by information technology demand different skills and knowledge (Yang 2003). Support to indigenous educational institutions by donors sometimes leads to pressures to accept certain ideologies that are antithetical to indigenous interests. What is affecting them is also the global measurement of the quality of education. Method of examinations and what is measured in them has often come in clash with local, indigenously learnt and adapted curricula. English language has been a dominant force in globalised learning and teaching. To make matters worse, privatisation has come in the way of the government support system to continue subsidies and other benefits to local communities. In India, there is not much of a threat because of continued support through state sponsored reforms but the students of such indigenous modes of education face the threat of joblessness and uncertainty in jobs even if they get one.

Although there are efforts to popularise indigenous education, the above challenges are placing difficulties in continuing the same. In the name of social and economic mobility rural societies are strongly advocating the continued functioning of modern schools. It is also true that large numbers of these rural youth are joining the unemployed cohorts in the cities and towns.

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