7 THE MONASTIC TRADITIONS OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Dr. Nivedita Rao

The Monastic traditions

Early historical India a period between 600-300 B.C. was a period of intense philosophical speculation and debate on various issues such as the origins of the universe, nature of the soul and necessity of performing sacrifices. This tradition of questioning can be traced to Upanishads but were also held by various other schools of thought such as the Ajivikas, Charvaks among others. Both Buddhism and Jainism belong to this period but unlike their predecessors have survived into modern times. Before we learn about the lives and teachings of the two great teachers of this faith let us understand the social and historical milieu that they lived in.

Both The Buddha and Mahavira lived in urban societies, both came from Kshatriya clans and royal families. While Buddha belonged to the Shakya clan, Mahavir came from the Jnatrikas, both tribes known to have been politically non-monarchical states. They lived in cities which were connected with increasing craft specialisation, trade and an incipient cash economy. While the categories of varna and jati were becoming more complex, new socio economic groups such as the Gahapati, [a wealthy property or land owner] as well as the setthi, [a high level businessman associated with trade and money lending] become prominent in this period. It was in such an urban milieu fraught with feelings of alienation and loneliness that the two monastic traditions are known to have found many adherents. Although both were contemporaries, the Jaina doctrine is considered older. Upinder Singh notes that there are many similarities between the two traditions such as their rejection of the authority of the Veda, their non-theistic doctrine, emphasis on renunciation and human effort as a means to attaining salvation, and the establishment of a monastic order for men and women. [Singh 2008]

Buddhism

Life of the Buddha

The Buddha born as Siddhartha was a prince whose father Suddhodana was chief of the Sakya clan and mother Maya died shortly after giving birth to him in the Lumbini Grove. Legends have it that it was foretold that Siddhartha would be a great man, either as a ruler or as a world renouncer. His father to avoid the latter brought him up within the confines of great luxury and pleasure. However the narrative takes a twist and we find Siddhartha unwittingly in the 29th year of his life, chances upon an old man, a sick person, a corpse and a monk. Faced with such harsh reality and human misery he decides to leave his home and family to seek Enlightenment. He tries various methods including starvation and other austerities but does not attain salvation. It is only then he forsakes ascetic austerities and accepts nourishment does he attain enlightenment through a process of contemplation and deep meditation. After his Bodhi or Enlightenment he preaches to five former companions in the Deer park near Benaras. He wandered around preaching his doctrine for almost 40 years and is known to have passed away at the age of 80 in Kusinara. Before his death he established the Buddhist Sangha, a monastic order of monks and nuns. [Singh 2008]

Basic teachings-

The core of Buddhist teaching revolves around the principle of the four noble truths. He taught that life and the world has sorrow or suffering, its cause is rooted in desire arising out of ignorance, arrogance, attachment, greed, pride and avarice. That just as there is a cause to this suffering there is also a way to remove this sorrow and the path to removal was the eight fold path. It was a path that emphasised appropriate behaviour, action as well as meditation. The eight fold path consists of right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration. This path is believed to have been a middle path [majjhima magga], avoiding both intense indulgence and ascetic austerities. [Singh 2008]

The Buddha emphasised impermanence often giving examples of a flowing river, where though it is the same river the waters are constantly changing. He therefore rejected the idea of anything permanent such as the Atman, but does accept the idea of transmigration or samsara. As opposed to the brahmanical understanding of Karma, Buddhists relate karma to moral action that governs one’s fate. Another important teaching of the Buddha is the theory of Dependent causation generally represented as a wheel of 12 interrelated causes that give rise to suffering. These are listed as ignorance, formations, consciousness, mind and body, the six senses, sense contact, feeling, craving, attachment, becoming, birth, old age and death. [Singh 2008]

The goal of these teaching was to achieve nibbana/nirvana, which would literally mean blowing out or dying out or extinction of desire and other forms of ego-centrism. Nibbana could be attained by both men and women by human effort in following the eight fold path.

The Buddha in his lifetime is known to have established the monastic order for monks and nuns. Both had to live life of renunciants, abstain from sexual contact, and avoid stealing, killing and making false claims of attaining nibbana. The monastic order may have in the early phases been a temporary monsoonal retreat but soon became with lavish donations from the laity into permanent monastic establishments. Even in the establishment of the monastery the Buddha maintained the middle path, disallowing monks to reside in urban areas or in the forest. The principles of organising the sangha may have come from the tribal oligarchies of which the Buddha himself was a member. Both monks and nuns were required to recite the patimokkha rules and confess to the rules that they had broken every fortnight on the new and full moon days. [Singh 2008]

Buddha accepted the idea that women could attain nibbana and hence is known to have permitted a group of petitioners led by his aunt albeit reluctantly to form the bhikkuni sangha or the nunnery. However the sangha was not open to those women who were pregnant, mothers of infants, women who lived with men, and had to seek permission from either parents or husband to join the nunnery. Although many learned nuns are mentioned by the Buddhist texts and the Therigatha, they were routinely subordinated to monks. They had to respect novices younger than themselves, never rebuke or abuse a monk and never advice the monks, but monks could advice on confessions and ordination and set dates for both. [Singh 2008]

Buddhism after the death of the Buddha-

Shortly after the Buddha’s death the first council was convened in Rajgriha under the authority of the monk Mahakassapa. It is in this council that the entire Sutta pitaka [the text which contains the main teachings of the Buddha] and the Vinaya pitaka [text containing the rules governing the monasteries] were orally recited by the monks Upali and Ananda and standardised. This canon was committed to writing about 500 years later in Sri Lanka and is known as the Pali canon and is the basis of the more recent Theravada branch of Buddhism.

It is in the second council held in Vesali that the first split in the sangha occurs and this is between the Sthaviravada [council of elders, in Pali Theravada] and the Mahasanghika [great majority] school of thought. The Mahasanghika were the forerunners of the later Mahayana Buddhism. Let us pause here to look into what were the main points of difference between the Sthaviravada or Theravada school and the Mahayanists. [Crosby 2013]

Theravada is generally considered as the religion of the book, the book in this case being the Pali canon [the early Suttapitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka written in Sinhalese] they believe in the historicity of the Buddha and accept that he was a human being and a teacher. Their understanding of the world and the Dhamma is rooted in realism and they follow a monastic discipline of celibacy, shaven heads, wear saffron robes and accept donations from lay people. While on the other hand the Mahayanists totally rework both the idea of the Buddha as well as that of the Bodhisattva, a being who has yet to attain Buddhahood. Both these ideas some historians have claimed arose in India at a time of growing devotionalism in Indian religions. [Crosby 2013]

The Boddhisattva already existed as part of the Jataka tales in Theravada Buddhism as stories of previous lives of the Buddha who selflessly helps beings and consciously puts off his own Buddhahood. Thus the Bodhisattvas personifying various ideals of compassion [Avalokiteshvara], wisdom [Manjushree] and Benevolence [Maitreya] were regarded as saviour figures that would help relieve human suffering and guide one along the spiritual path. But in the Mahayana tradition the figure of the Buddha is drastically changed, he is both omnipresent and eternal via his truth Body or the Dharma-Kaya. Thus the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were deified in Buddhist Viharas and monasteries in the form of paintings and sculptures. The practice therefore of Mahayana Buddhism became more ritualistic and prayer oriented replacing the older aim of Nirvana with the need to attain Buddhahood. [Crosby 2013]

Vajrayana Buddhism or Tantric Buddhism was another form of Buddhism that developed in the 6th -7th century A.D. and may have been an influence that came from Kashmir. This form of Buddhism promised the attainment of Buddhahood through esoteric and secret magical practices. Considered as a reaction to rid scholasticism of the philosophical schools of the Mahayana Buddhism, Vajrayana form was rapidly accepted and followed in the northern kingdoms especially Tibet. [Crosby 2013]

The history of Buddhism- its decline and spread outside of India.

From the 7th century onwards mainland India begins to witness the disappearance of Buddhism although eastern Indian monasteries and places of worship continued to receive patronage. Various causes of decline are put forth- some have claimed the growing tantric influence on Buddhism, corruption in the sangha and growing disconnect between the society and the monasteries which largely became centres of philosophical debates [Kosambi 1986]. Thapar suggests that newer and simpler forms of worship within the bhakti traditions imitating the saviour image of the Bodhisattvas may have weaned away adherents.[Thapar 2002] While Omvedt suggests that it was the rise of monarchical states and the new Hindu kings became patrons of Puranic religion and the varna ideology that led to the loss of patronage and persecution of the Buddhist sanghas as a major cause for its decline. [Omvedt 2003]

Spread of Buddhism-

King Ashoka is generally credited with the spread of Buddhism outside of its place of origin in north India. His missions to Sri Lanka, Burma and the North West regions led to the establishment of Theravada monasteries. Theravada is today mainly followed in Sri Lanka and the Southeast Asian countries. In China it was the Mahayana school that followed the silk trade. Madhyamika school known in china as the Sanlun school was popular till the 9th century while the Yogachara school popularized by Yuan Chuang remained from the 6th -9th century. Today most of China, Japan and Korea have the Pure Land school of Mahayana Buddhism. Chan Buddhism was brought to China by Bodhidharma in the 6th century and its practice of meditation as well as martial arts became deeply rooted in the Chinese tradition. [Clarke 2009] Son [Zen] Buddhism was introduced by Huineng into the Korean peninsula and Japan. Zen buddhism’s influence on the Samurai grew in the Shogunate period and its offshoots were the Tendai and Nichiren school. The Soka Gokkai is an offshoot of the Nichiren School established in the 20th century. [Clarke 2009] Vajrayana Buddhism entered Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. In Tibet Padmasambhava [Guru Rinpoche] introduced this school of thought in the 8th century. In the 14th century Mongol overlords convert to Buddhism and the head Lama is made Viceroy of Tibet. There are three orders of Buddhism in Tibet. These are the Gelugpa School of which the Dalai Lama is the spiritual head, the Kargyu order established by Marpa and Milarepa in the 11th century and the third is the Sakyapa order established in the 13th century. [Clarke 2009]

Socially Engaged Buddhism

Engaged Buddhism is a phenomenon of the twentieth century in South and South East Asia following the devastations of the world wars, the cold war and colonialism. It is movement not by any one particular sect of Buddhism, but rather has followers from Theravada, Mahayana as well as Vajrayana Buddhism. Buddhist monks engaged in such activism seek to counter various issues- such as countering violent and undemocratic governments, economic devastations, and ecological crises and in post colonial India to fight the stigma of untouchability. Sallie King’s work on Socially Engaged Buddhism gives a complete guide to how such movements have been fought non-violently by both monks and nuns of different Buddhist orders. Everywhere such struggles have been for peace, justice and through methods that involve Buddhist principle of compassion and universal goodwill. She however cautions us that not all forms of activist Buddhism may be called socially engaged- especially the chauvinist nationalism of Buddhists in Sri Lanka that has been attacking non Buddhist population of the country. [King 2009]

Engaged Buddhism is a term coined by Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese Buddhist monk trained both in Theravada and Zen Buddhism. Using Buddhist principles of non –violence and compassion he tried to bring an end to war in his country. Let us now look at some of the countries where engaged Buddhism has been deployed against cruel and tyrannical regimes. [King 2009]

Tibet

Tibet was attacked and occupied by the Chinese in 1949. Monasteries were burnt, manuscripts and Buddhist antiquities were destroyed and around one million Tibetans killed. Disastrous agricultural policies destroyed the economy and in 1959 the Dalai Lama, spiritual ruler of Tibet fled to India and still lives there in exile fighting to liberate Tibet and hopes to return home with his people some day. The fight for liberation has always been peaceful and non violent under his leadership. Regarded as the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvar, a doyen of compassion the Dalai Lama believes that violence; anger and hatred can only bring about bad karma and sow seeds of violence. His radical approach to redefine the enemy in this case the Chinese has also invigorated the movement. Teaching from the Dhammapada, he is grateful to the enemy since this gives the Tibetans an opportunity to exercise tolerance, forgiveness and patience. In the five point program for liberation from the Chinese, the Dalai Lama not only wishes the return to a liberated homeland and to the Tibetan way of life but also to cease environmental destruction of the natural resources through mining and dumping of nuclear wastes. The hope to get liberation is indeed very weak but seen from a perspective of the long term; the Tibetans believe that their principles will bring about a change of heart amongst the Chinese youth who then will probably affect changes in their government. [King 2009]

Vietnam

In Vietnam, the Buddhist monks of the United Buddhist Church of Vietnam became active members of an anti war movement called the struggle movement. Between 1963 and 1966 they publicly organised anti war demonstrations, wrote anti war songs and pamphlets, rescued military deserters and kept up the non cooperation movement against the government. Some monks and nuns as well as laypeople self immolated themselves in the Buddhist fashion of sitting in the lotus posture and peacefully let themselves be consumed by flames. Although Theravada condemns such acts these as King notes were acts committed as Bodhisattvas, acting out of love, sacrificing themselves in order to save lives of others. During the war itself they worked selflessly in evacuating villages on both sides on the line of fire, they rebuilt villages and started orphanages, offered medical care and counselling for those affected by the war. By 1966 the movement was completely crushed but monk Thich Nhat Hanh began working in exile with reconstructing lives of American war veterans, counselling them to forgive themselves for their past deeds and live in the present. [King 2009]

Burma/Myanmar

Burma since 1960’s was ruled by the military junta. The military has been responsible for mass killings, forced labour, rape of women and children and violence on ethnic minorities. In 1988 huge demonstrations by students and Buddhist monks were held against the military regime. Aung San Suu Kyi, leader of the National League for Democracy is dedicated to engaged Buddhism and leads a peaceful non violent movement. In 2007, Buddhist monks joined street demonstration against rise in fuel costs. They publicly overturned their rice bowls thus indicating that they would not accept donations from the corrupt military regime or their supporters. It was a powerful gesture that was not without danger. There has been since heavy military crackdown. [King 2009]

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka the Sarvodaya Shramadana, a movement spearheaded by engaged Buddhist aimed at resolving the war between Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority through peaceful and non violent manner. They have held massive peace rallies and meditations with the sole aim of making people believe in non violence and compassion. They do not make angry speeches or derogatory remarks on anyone but rather in a disciplined manner perform walking meditation aimed at inner peace. Once the participants gain some of this message they are then trained to stop support and discourage people from violence both in speech and action. The Sarvodaya Shramadana is above all also a movement to empower the Sri Lankan villages economically through its self- help programs. They work in all village including the Tamil minority ones helping the poorest achieve what they in their manifesto suggest as basic requirements such as clean environment, water, housing, education, basic communications, energy etc. [King 2009]

Cambodia

The genocidal war begun by the Khmer Rouge regime had devastated the country leaving an estimate of millions dead and traumatised. Monk Mahaghosananda, after returning from exile in Thailand, began his Dhammayietra or the peace walk from Thai border bringing along refugees back home. Although battles continued it would subside where the Yietra stopped or rested. The Yietra was training in non violence and loving kindness and meditation. Sallie King notes that this exercise was important to stall the spate of revenge killings after the war in Cambodia to a significant measure. [King 2009]

India

In India the revival of Buddhism can be traced to the efforts of the theosophical society, the conversion of David Hewavitarne [later called Anagarika Dharmapala] who founded the Mahabodhi Society in Colombo and attracted many adherents. Scholars like Rhys Davids translated many Pali Buddhist texts thus them available for a large reading public. In 1898 K.A.Keluskar a non –Brahmin publishes his life of Ambedkar which was later read by Babasaheb Ambedkar. In south India many Dalit leaders were attracted to Buddhism as an alternative Dharma . Iyothee Thass [1845-1914] was one of the earliest to have established the Sakya Buddhist society and influenced his caste of Paraiyas who later carried the message of the Dhamma to Burma and South Africa when they migrated to these places. E. V. Ramaswamy ‘Periyar’ was also associated with this society as were leaders from Kerala and Hyderabad. However as Omvedt notes most of these movements faded away by the 1930 till the rise of Ambedkar’s movement towards Buddhism in 1908, when he first received a book on the Buddha’s life. [Omvedt 2003] He later read works on Buddhism from the Indian tradition, discussed with scholars and also visited many ancient sites of Buddhist caves in Maharashtra. The transition to Buddhism reached a climax in 1935 when Ambedkar announced, ‘Although I have been born a Hindu, I will not die a Hindu.’ This resulted in the conversion of 400,000 followers in October 1956 in the city of Nagpur in central India as he took the‘ three refuges’ of traditional Buddhism. As Omvedt notes that this was a major turning point for Dalits and for the religious–cultural identity of India. [Omvedt 2003]

Jainism

Life of Mahavira-

Mahavira the 24th and the last Tirthankara [ford maker] of the Jain religion was a contemporary to the Buddha. He is not considered as the founder of the religion since there are 23 Tirthankaras mentioned before him, Neminatha the 22nd one may have belonged to Gujarat while the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanath lived in Benaras. [Singh 2003] It is difficult to prove the historicity of most of the earlier Tirthankaras. Mahavira [great hero] was born Vardhamana, son of Siddhartha, and chief of the Jnatrika clans. His mother Trishala devi belonged to the Lichcchavi clan. Legends speak of the transfer of Mahavir’s embryo from a Brahmin woman to that of Trishala, an attempt that historians have regarded as giving to Mahavira both a Brahmin as well as a Kshatriya lineage. According to the Shvetambara tradition he married Yashoda and had a daughter Priyadarshana. Quite like the Buddha, He too is known to have left his household at the age of 30 and wandered as an ascetic for 12 years with a group called the Nirgranthas [ free from Bonds] a group probably established by Parshvanath. He is known to have spent some time with Makkali Gosala, who belonged to the Ajivika sect. In the 13th year he attains Kevaljnana or infinite Knowledge after severe austerities and through rigorous meditation. He thus becomes the Jina [the conqueror] and soon preaches his message. His early disciples were predominantly of the Brahmin caste who in turn became members of the Sangha. Mahavir preached for 30 years and established a monastic order of monks and nuns and passed away at the age of 72 at Pava [near Patna] [Singh 2003]

Basic teachings-

Jaina understanding of reality-

The Jains believe that reality is manifold or Anekanta and cannot be grasped easily. This is so because there is no one reality and the doctrine of Syadavada or ‘maybe’ suggests relativity of knowledge. Thus it is impossible to understand reality in its entirety and therefore at best only partial. This leads them to conclude that the soul or jiva cannot be eternal. The jiva has three main qualities that of consciousness, bliss and energy. They believe that jivas transmigrate due to karma, but according to the Jainas karmic matter are particles floating in space and attach themselves to the jiva due to negative associations with passions, desire and hatred. This karmic matter therefore obstructs the fulfilment of the jiva. But by right knowledge and effort these can be overcome and the jiva can move from bondage to liberation. The ladder leading to bliss is imagined to have 14 rungs. Upon reaching the 13th stage Kevaljnana is achieved and one becomes an Arhat, the 14th stage is ultimate and when reached the aspirant is called a Tirthankara. [Dundas 2002]

Jaina discipline- the three gems or tri-ratna of Jainism consists of right faith or samyag-darshana, right knowledge or samyag jnana and right conduct or samyag charitra. Right conduct comprised of following the mahavratas or the five great vows for the monks and the nuns and anuvratas for the laity. The aim of these vows is to control anger, pride, deceit and greed. [Dundas 2002]

Non–injury to living organisms is one the most important tenets of Jainism. The smallest of living organisms are called nigodas and are single sense bodies and over them is a pyramid of earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies and air bodies. These are slightly higher to the nigodas and thence to even higher ones which include plants and animals. Injury to organisms involves not only harm to the organisms but also hinders personal salvation. Hence Jains were required to follow strict vegetarianism avoiding meats, tubers, and even alcohol. The monks and nuns are forbidden to dig earth, walk in the rain or greenery and fan themselves or even extinguish flames since they may harm organisms. While ahimsa must be strictly followed by the initiates, the laity was forbidden to follow certain profession such as hunting and killing, agriculture or warfare and certain crafts. Trade involved the least amount of injury and hence was encouraged as the preferred profession. [Dundas 2002]

The Shvetambaras and the Digambaras-

Two differing schools of thought arose within the Jain community very gradually perhaps after 5th century A.D. These were the white robed Shvetambaras and the sky clad or naked Digambaras. The former wear robes beg alms and collect these into bowls and eat from them. They believe that women can achieve salvation and that the Kevalin or the fully omniscient being requires nourishment while the Digambaras argue that all early Tirthankaras roamed naked and did not use begging bowls. They also reject the claims that women can achieve salvation and that the Kevalin requires no food for existence. The Digambaras inhabited urban north and central India, southern Maharashtra and Karnataka and the Shvetambaras in Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Punjab. [Cort 2001]

The Shvetambaras have further divisions. These are listed below

1. The Sthanakvasis separated in the mid fifteenth century initiated by Lonka Sah who opposed image worship and Lavji rishi who in the early seventeenth century introduced the mouth shield or muhapatti.
2. The Terapanthis, a breakaway group from the Sthanakvasis, was established by Bhikanji in 1760 A.D. over issues of authority and other monastic practices. They too oppose image worship and are to be found mainly in Rajasthan.
3. The Murtipujaks as the name suggests were image worshippers. Unlike the other sects they carry their muhapatti in their hands. The Murtipujak mendicant community is divided into five gaccha [ a gaccha is a term used for a mendicant community who travel together]Tapa, Anchal, Khartar, Paichen and Tristuti. Most of them were established in the early medieval period. The Murtipujaks worship in the temple known as the Derasar while the mendicant community lives in the Upashraya or the monastery. [Cort 2001]

Other institutions of Jain community-

The Jains build Dharmashalas for pilgrims at various places in India connected with Jainism. A dining hall or Bhojanshala is constructed for availing of food for the Jains. The bhandars are ancient storehouses of hand written and often lavishly painted manuscripts of Jain religion. Of these the earliest date to 13th century and many are from the 15th century. These manuscripts were collected painstakingly by Jain monks in the early 20th century and today are housed in the Hemchandra Jnan Mandir in Patan, Gujarat. [Dundas 2002] The Panjrapol is an animal shelter built by Jain communities to give shelter to stray and abandoned animals notably cows. Besides these the Jain community has also built schools, hospitals, hostels, technical institutes etc. [Dundas 2002]

The layperson

The layperson was in the past known as an upasaka, one whose life emulates the ascetic ideal and who serves them, however in recent times they are called shravak literally hearers of the doctrine and who serve the monks through worship in the temples. The layperson was expected to follow the five lesser vows or the anuvratas which are modelled on the mahavratas but much less severe. [Dundas 2002]

The first vow of non-violence is understood to be one that avoids an occupation that might injure living organism. The second vow of truth requires Jain layperson not to lie about their goods if in business. The third of non-stealing requires them to not indulge in malpractices and non payment of taxes in the present context. The fourth vow of celibacy is non functional in the householder’s life and hence is translated as an activity that requires sexual urges to be restricted to the wife. The fifth vow of non –attachment requires the lay person to inculcate detachment with worldly goods and do charity work for the community. As paul Dundas notes-‘What is important in Jain lay behaviour is not precise conformity to a canonical pattern of religiosity (it is very rare today for anybody to take the Lesser Vows formally), but rather the manifestation of pious intentions and correct ethical dispositions through public participation in religious ceremonies, worship and community activities, the enhancement of the prestige of oneself and one’s fellow Jains through religious gifting and social work and the correctness of one’s business affairs and family alliances’.[Dundas 2002]

Worship

The Murtipujaks or the Mandirmargis from both Digambara and Shvetambara sect worship at the temple. Textual evidence of image worship date back to first century of the Christian era in King Kharavela’s inscriptions and images of the Jinas make their appearance from fifth century of the Christian era. Jain temples often resemble Hindu temples in architecture. The images of the Jinas is portrayed as naked, standing or sitting cross legged and in calm meditative posture. The different Tirthankaras are accompanied with their characterising symbols, for example the Tirthankara Parshva and Suparshva have canopies of cobra hoods behind their heads. Worship in the temple in the Digambara sect is performed by the Upadhye while in the Shvetambara sect by the Pujari who is often a non- Jain priest. Both of these are purely ritualists and not considered important for the achievement of salvation. [Dundas 2002]

Worship for the Murtipujak is generally in the form of a puja which consists of obeisance and rituals offered to the Jinas. Pujas are generally divided into Dravya puja or those done by the lay person with physical offerings while Bhava puja is offered by the ascetic with devotion, singing of hymns and repeating the mantras. This difference primarily arises since mendicant groups ideally do not possess any worldly goods and hence cannot therefore offer any thing. The dravya puja consists of three parts –these are the chaitya vandana, ashtaprakari puja and darshan. The chaitya vandana is generally performed in early morning after a bath and donning clean clothes. The ritual involves various forms of prostrations and recitation of Prakrit and vernacular verses. [Dundas 2002]

The Ashtaprakari Puja is divided into two parts. The first three anga or limb puja are directly made onto the body of the Jina. These consist of offering of water, sandalwood and saffron paste applied to nine parts of the body of the Jina and offering of flowers at the feet. These rituals are performed in the central shrine of the temple. The rest of the five offerings are made facing the image and consist of incense, lamp, rice, food and fruit. While offerings of incense and lamp are done in the central shrine the remainder of the puja can be performed from the main pavilion facing the shrine. [Dundas 2002]

The darshan is a simpler ritual and is done by folding of hands in a namaskar posture while facing the image, repeating the mantra ‘praise be to the Jina’ and circumambulation of the central shrine. The ritual ends with the singing of a few hymns and ringing of the temple bells.

The purpose of the puja is manifold-the puja is meant to reduce the bad karma accumulated in one’s life as a lay person and to gain virtue. Both men and women can perform these pujas except during menstruation in case of women. As Cort explains in the case of moksha margi murtipujaks of Patan, Gujarat- the reason behind such ritual is that if by harmful or sinful activities one can acquire negative karma, so by doing a meritorious deed like a ritual/puja one can acquire good karma and hence a good rebirth. The Jinas are not expected to intercede on their behalf since Jain theology repeat this very often that the Tirthankaras are not Gods. They are not creators of the universe nor do they assist salvation they are only teachers who can show the path of liberation. The Puja can be done by oneself or get done by someone else. [Dundas 2002]

Jain festivals-

The Jain calendar consists of many festivals followed by different groups and connected with the lives of the 24 Jinas. These may be connections with their birth, renunciation, and attainment of enlightenment or the final liberation. Paryushan is the oldest of the festivals and a good description of this festival is found in the Kalpasutra. Jain sadhus are invited to give sermons on the 8 days of the festival. Laymen and women fast during these days and perform pujas in the temples ending with a congregational feast. On the fourth day of Paryushan the recitation of Kalpasutra begins. Sometimes these are also taken in procession around the community. The recitation lasts for four days. [Dundas 2002]

A month after Paryushan comes Ayambil Oli. Oli means a line or series of nine days. Ayambil means an extensive fast. The festival involves the worship of and meditation of the nine petals of the Siddhachakra. The nine petals include the five lords of Jainism- the Jina, Siddha, Acharya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu, the three jewels or tri ratnas of correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct and the fourth jewel of correct asceticism. Jain women pray for the long life of their husbands in this festival. Apart from these festivals the Jains also worship Divali, Holi, Raksha Bandhan and other Hindu festivals. Mahavir Jayanti is the celebrated to mark the birth anniversary of Mahavir. [Dundas 2002]

For the Digambaras the most important festival is Mahamastakabhishek and occurs once every 12 years to mark the great asceticism of Bahubali son of the Jina Rishabhdeva. The colossal statue of Bahubali in Shravana Belgola, Karnataka is bathed with 1008 substance by the one given privilege to do so. [Dundas 2002]

Jains also regularly visit pilgrimage sites. These sites are not connected with the worship of relics as in the Buddhist tradition but rather are situated on sites where there has been the discovery of a Tirthankara image or connected with their life events. Thus we have the holy site of Pava near Patna connected with lord Mahavir’s birth or the town of Sankeshvar where an icon of Rshabhdeva was miraculously found. The Shvetambara pilgrim sites are found generally in Gujarat and Rajasthan while those of the Digambaras in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The most famous of Shvetambara site is that of Mt. Shatrunjaya in Palitana, Gujarat. For the Digambaras the holiest site is that of Shravan Belgola already mentioned above. This site tells the story of the half son of Rishabha, Bahubali who gave up violence and starved himself to death according to the Jain tradition. The image was built by a minister of the Ganga dynasty in the 10th century A.D. [Dundas 2002]

Jainism in the Modern world

Jain religion underwent many changes with the onset of colonial modernity in India. There was an increased emphasis on the scientific and rational character of the religion and the downplaying of the religious and ritualistic aspects of the religion and an emphasis on the experiential and experimental approach to truth. [Long 2013] Within the Digambar panth, influence of Kundakunda, a medieval Jain philosopher was imminent. The Taran Svami panth was one of the earliest to criticize the system of Bhattarakas and image worship and they emphasized egalitarian and non sectarian approach to Jainism. Similarly the Kavi panth advocated achievement of enlightenment without dependence on Ascetics and encouraged meditation rather than ritualism. The Kanji Svami panth too has emphasised the non sectarian path of Jain beliefs. In the Shvetambara Panth the system of Saman and Samani [ascetics who could travel abroad] was initiated along with the anuvrata movement and the promotion of the preksha meditation. The Veeryatan movement was established in 1973 by Acharya Chandana, the first Sthanakvasi nun to become Acharya to provide humanitarian service and education to the masses. This movement has established eye clinic, polio clinics and outpatient clinics. [Long 2013]

Reference bibliography

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