20 Issues of integration : Europe and UK

1. INTRODUCTION

This module endeavours to explore the mutual interaction between an immigrant group and the society and state of the host country in Europe and UK and the nature of integration and identity formation of the former It tries to understand and contextualise integration mainly in terms of the host country’s immigration policies.

The notion of integration has two basic aspects;

1)     The efforts made by diaspora to fit into the host society ; how much it is pulled by ties to the home country; how successful it is in integrating- in the economy, polity, society and culture.

2)     The efforts made by the host country to enable and ease the integration process. What is the policy in the host country regarding immigrants, minorities; the procedure for getting citizenship; whether the country has adopted a multicultural policy and the debates on it.

Indian emigration to Europe, in contrast to UK, has been more limited and there is not a large Indian origin population there1. Europe is a large continent with many countries.The following outline will present issues of integration faced by Indians in two countries, namely Germany and France, where a relatively strong Indian diaspora exists.

Before we begin to explore issues of integration in Germany and France, we will briefly focus on Italy, Netherlands and Portugal which have some Indian presence. Even though India and Italy have upheld important relations since ancient times, sustained immigration to Italy is a current occurrence, which began happening in the early 1990s, when the Italian government offered amnesty to illegal migrants subsequent to a worker shortage, and the numbers have been on the rise since. Many Indians migrated from Punjab and worked on dairy farms and agriculture2. Others became entrepreneurs and have been active in the restaurant and retail fields associated with Italy’s large tourism industry. It has been reported that most Indians have incorporated profitably into Italian life, and the local authorities and people are impressed with their contributions to the local economy. Indians have thus proved to be industrious, hard working and law abiding3. For the most part , many Indians have continued engaging with their own religious practices, namely Hinduism and Sikhism. There are multiple temples, gurdwaras and ISKON temples4.

There have been two diverse groups amongst the Indian Community in Netherlands. In the colonial period, Indians emigrated to Surinam, a Dutch colony in the Caribbean region as Indentured Labour. When Surinam got independence from the Dutch, the Indian indentured labour who had settled there got the option of migrating to the Netherlands, which many did then and in the subsequent decades5. More recently, a wave of Indian professionals from India have migrated. It has been estimated that the Indian community is 215,000 or 1.35% out of a total population of 15.9 million. There have also been around 2000 illegal Indians, mostly Sikhs in the Netherlands. The economic growth in the 1950s and the 1960s propelled a high demand for high skilled labour. Hence, an increase in the number of Indian families was witnessed; from 10 in 1960 to 250 by the end of 1970. There was an increase in the number of NRIs setting up trading companies in the Netherlands, when the scope for imports of textiles, leather products and other consumer products from developing countries augmented. With an expansion in Dutch Universities, more highly qualified and experienced Indian scientists and researchers were keen on migrating to Netherlands6.

In India, the colonial Portugal era began in 1502 and ended in 1961 with the seizure of Goa by India. This long term colonial relationship has led to deep rooted cultural, historical and social relationship between Goa and Portugal. This relationship has been formed over a period of time, with migration from Goa to Portugal7. In 1947, the Portugese empire comprised of Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli when India became independent. However, as mentioned above, they were taken back by India, which pronounced the demise of Portugese rule in India. This long standing colonial relationship resulted in a close tie between the ruler and the ruled. Portugal allowed Goa to have access to the same kind of rights granted to the inhabitants of Portugal. What also played a significant part in forging this relationship was the migration from Goa to Portugal. This migration was a result of different waves. Goans who had immigrated to Portugal in search of education, during the period of colonial period. Following this, many Goans applied for Portugal citizenship and settled there. In fact, many Indians have “twice migrated” to Portugal from Mozambique, Kenya, and so on. In contemporary times, Goans have been migrating to Portugal, in order to gain access to the larger European market. Consequently then, it is because of these successive waves of migration, these exists a fairly large Goan Community inhabiting in Portugal8 (although, numbers are arduous to estimate for myriad reasons).

2.GERMANY

The community of Indians in Germany comprises of Indian expatriates in Germany, and German citizens of Indian origin. In 2009, the German government estimated that the number of Indian people living in Germany is 110,204, out of which 43, 175 people were holding an Indian passport, while 67, 029 were holding a German passport (Mussing and Stichs 2009: 144)

There is not much data available on the migration of Indians to Germany before the 20th century. Early to mid 20th century it seems that two groups were attracted to migrating to Germany. The firstcomprised of nationalists who sought to free India from the British and saw the Germans as allies to help them achieve their objective. However, the defeat of the Germans in World War 1 and 2 ended these attempts. The second group consisted Indian students who were attracted to German universities that were leaders in education as well as research. Also, the academic community in Germany welcomed Indian scholars and students.Multiple visits by eminent personalities such as Rabindranath Tagore established a strong reputation of Indian philosophy and literature in the country (Ganesh 2014: 240-241).

Later on in the 50’s after the end of World War 2, there was a fairly heavy emigration of Indian students to West Germany. Many were engineers and technicians who were granted scholarships. After their studies, some stayed behind and went on to form much of the Indian diaspora in the country today. It was easy for most to establish themselves in the middle class of Germany because of the higher education they received in the country. Later on manyIndian nurses also found work in Germany and eventually settled there. Many people from war –prone areas in the third world/developing countries entered Germany as refugees and political asylum seekers.The children from these marriages now comprise a considerable portion of Indo-Germans. Post 2000, after the launch of the Green Card initiative, Germany has seen an influx of Indians in the form of IT professionals and technicians. Also a group of Punjabi Sikhs sought refuge in Germany in the 80’s (Goel 2008: 100).

2.1 Policies

As with most countries, legal immigration to Germany is regulated. Post war, it seemed as though going back to business like before was going to be easy. Nonetheless, the year 1945 was different. There was large scale destruction, that much of Europe and Asia was in ruins. During the war, many had left their homes or were compulsorily moved to Germany. During 1950s and 1960s, West Germany signed bilateral recruitment agreements with Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain and so on. These agreements permitted the recruitment of “Guest workers” to work in the industrial sector for jobs that necessitated few qualifications. Due to the “economic miracle” in the 1950s , there were labourers in demand along with labour shortage, which was more heightened by the creation of the Berlin Wall in 19619. This development condensed the large scale flow of East German immigration to nothing overnight. Coupled with this, the Federal Republic proclaimed this to be a form of development aid. There was hope that guest workers would learn useful skills in Germany, which could enable them to build their own countries after returning home. The first guest workers were recruited from European nations, but Turkey demanded the Federal Republic to allow its citizens to become guest workers10. Following this demand, the secretary of state for employment opposed to such agreements. His argument was that the cultural gap between Turkey and Germany was too large; and that Germany itself had numerous unemployed people living in poorer regions of the country, who he preferred would fill the vacancies. However, the USA pressurised Germany, in order to stabilize and create goodwill from a potential ally. Later on, negotiations were carried out, and an agreement was arrived at. Post the 1960s, Turkish citizens soon became the largest group of guest workers in Germany. It was expected by both sides, that the guest work would only be temporary. They were permitted to work for 1-2 years, before returning to their home country in order to make room for other migrants. The agreement ended in 1973, but not many returned home as there were limited jobs in Turkey. Instead, they bought in wives and family members and settled in ethnic enclaves. (Horrocks and Kolinsky, 1996)

During the 70’s Germany mostly demanded unskilled or low skilled professionals. During this period, several thousand Indian nurses came to Germany (Naoujoks 2009) Family reunification regulations allowed relatives of these people to come to Germany as well. Even today, Germany’s policy has ensured that family reunification remains one of the most important ways to enter the country. The other prominent way to enter the country started in the year 2000 with the green card initiative for foreign tech professionals. This was done to meet Germany’s growing demand in the computer industry and initially allowed 20000 people to immigrate under this program. Several thousand Indian techies were able to immigrate to Germany under this program. (Ibid)

That being said the Germany policy towards immigration hasn’t always been favourable.. Issues with German policies with regards to family reunification, taxation and social security are some of the difficulties Indians face. Also with regard to citizenship German policy used to be a deterrent for Indians as it was based on “the right of blood” (German through ancestry only). It is only recently the policy of “right of soil” (citizenship through birth regardless of ancestry) has been strengthened. The second generation migrants to choose retain the citizenship of their parents or adopt German citizenship. However, dual citizenship is neither allowed in Germany (except for members of EU) nor inIndia which creates considerable dilemma for those wanting to be German citizens but not wanting to give up the citizenship of their parents homeland. Similarly, naturalized citizenship too requires considerable hurdles to be overcome. The migrant needs to complete an integration course, become fluent in German, not depend on public welfare programs and give up their original citizenship. Only then they may become eligible for citizenship after 7 years (Zuletzi 2009)

2.2 Challenges

The Indian community in Germany generally does not have a major presence in mainstream media of the country. Mostly it is in the news when Indians are targeted by xenophobes. Conservative parties have opposed immigration of Indians when the green card initiative was launched by using the slogan “Kinder statt Inder!”, which translates to ‘Children instead of Indians’ meaning Germans should produce children who will grow to do the IT jobs instead of Indian immigrants Mickenberg (2006: 10)In 2007 a racist mob assaulted several Sikhs and wounded them. Indians had to hide in a pizza restaurant to protect themselves. Although the incident itself was isolated it sparked an outcry in the country and raised awareness about the underlying xenophobia that exists in the country. German media has tried to cover this issue and spread knowledge about the Indian diaspora in the country. (Gautam, 2013: 20-22)

Indians are also stereotyped and subject to assumptions that are false. Frequently Sikhs are mistaken for Muslims. This especially happened after 9/11. Also, there are clichés about Indians involving certain characteristics. They are perceived to be shy and submissive. There are very few Indian characters in mainstream German TV and the ones that do appear such as Ranjid in the comedy show “Was Guckst Du?” present an extremely clichéd picture of Indians living in Germany. The character’s house is filled with images of deities and his cow lives in his apartment and travels with him. Ranjid himself is naive and frequently messes things up. (Bower 2014: 364-366)This represents a far from accurate picture of Indians actually living in Germany.

.Historically, India has been perceived to be superior to Germany in terms of culture, philosophy and spirituality, (see Ganesh 2014:234).In modern times its image has taken a hit because media coverage is usually only focused on poverty and suppression of women. While the influx of IT professionals post 2000 has changed this perception to an extent it has created new stereotypes of all Indians being tech wizards. However as this stereotype is not necessarily negative, it is not considered a problem by the diaspora.

Noting the part played by the Indian IT experts to the American economy, Germany too did seek to persuade Indian professionals with offers of attractive employment offers. Consequently, it began to revive its migration policies. This motivated the IT professionals to come to Germany (career, money, and personal experience). However, it has been documented that Indians face difficulties in Germany in terms of language, family structures, social structures, working culture, and racial discrimination. Germans were reportedly distant towards them, due to their differences in socialising, inability to speak English, inward orientation of German families, and intentions of racial discrimination. Because of this, Indians in Germany feel unwelcome to integrate with the German people, and in understanding German culture. As an alternative, they plunge into the ‘safe’ environment of the transnational community, where they feel safe and secure with other Indians (Meijering and Hoven, 2003:174-182)This lack of mutual understanding and communication between the Indian diasporic community and Germany as a host country generates further barriers between the two groups.

In order to spark a sense of belonging and ‘home’ in Germany, a few Indians, all born and raised in Germany have set up an online community by the name of The Inder.net (http://theindernet.blogspot.in/) wherein Indians in Germany write articles that project a positive image of India. Many of them have never been to India, or have been only during vacations in their childhood. Hence their experience and notions of India are only limited to their parents opinions about their hometowns or the mainstream views of India. They often make use of the indernetto struggle with the belongingness they crave and are deprived off.

2.3 Religion

Germany being till recently mono-religious, churches and other Christian institutions are an established part of society. Before theimmigration of Indians ,the Turks had already arrived and set up mosques and otherinstituions.Thus Indian Muslims and Christians already had religious institutionsavailable for affiliation.. However, Sikhs and Hindus had to build their own places of worship. For a long time there were no Hindu temples in Germany. Sri Lankan Tamils had a considerable role to play in the building of Hindu temples from the 90’s. They became popular amongst Indian Hindus as well. They were not only places of worship but also taught language, music and dance. Presently,, an Indian Ganesha temple in Berlin is under construction.

Initially, the Hindu community was not given much support in their temple building activity.. However, eventually given that the Hindu population in Germany was miniscule and posed no threat to “German Culture”, they were allowed to build temples. Similarly Sikh population in Germany, initially small, grew after large number of Sikhs were granted political asylum.They too sought to build their own places of worship. Today Germany has more than 12 Gurudwaras. Through this, the immigrant Indian communities have been able to make their presence felt physically as well as culturally in the German landscape. (Thapan and Deka 2013: 18)

Thus, as can be noted, the experiences of the Indian diasporic community at Germany are marked by daily struggles when trying to create a sense of home. Plus, language barrier is one of the chief obstructions in feeling ‘at home’ in Germany. While many Indians in Germany don’t know the native language of their host country, many Germans lack proficiency in English. Because of this, many Indians are unenthusiastic to establish contacts with Germans. Additional differences in family structures, social structures and working cultures too contribute to this phenomenon.

3. FRANCE

Migration of Indians to France has a long and a diverse history, wherein the earlier arrivals in the host country have aided in creating the conditions for the later waves. It is therefore, important to understand the historical relations between the two countries. Indian migration in France can be categorised into 3 main phases; until World War 1, the period from 1919 to 1949 and after (Williams 2013: 2-4)

France was the last of major European powers in the 15th century to attempt to organise trade with India. The migration of the Indian communities to France can be traced to the European expansion of that time. Many servants, ayahs and nannies were hired by the employees of the East India Company who made their fortunes in the French enclavesin India. There was very little migration of Indians to France for the first half of the 19th century. Nevertheless, culturally, France was impacted by India through the import of spices, propagation of knowledge, and other goods. Besides this, the sugarcane growers started searching for new labour, as prohibition of slavery hit production in France’s Caribbean territories hard. They agreed with the British to import indentured labourers who mostly came from Southern India, whereas indentured labourers in Dutch and British colonies came often from the Northern part of India. All theFrench colonies (Such as Reunion Islands, French Guyana, Mauritias and so on)11were disreputable for the poor treatment they meted out to the Indian indentured labour. Because of this, the Indian government tried to limit the number of Indians going there.. Notwithstanding this, a large number of Indians stayed as ‘free men’ and to differing degrees have integrated effectively into these societies, especially once the women were allowed to immigrate.. There was much confusion, about their (unclear) origins, resulting in difficulties in getting French citizenship. Though, by the 20th century most of them were acknowledged as French citizens.

Mainland France began to get an increasing flow of Indian visitors and migrants, although mainly of elite educated and business classes. The French presence outside of Calcutta in Chandernagore forged an association between the Bengali elite and various aspects of French culture and literature. Travelling to France to complete their education became a sign of being cultured.

The Indian army from the North played a crucial role in World War I. Many were sent to Belgium and France. The images Indians had of France and vice versa at that time were largely positive. The French built a monument to the Indian soldiers who fought in France and acknowledge the sacrifices made by them. The Indians too were impressed with the country’s advanced technology, were amazed to see very little practice of religion, and were shocked to see women working in farms. While most returned home, some stayed back and married local women. (Markovits 1999;William 2013: 4)

Throughout this pre-independence period, there was extremely restricted Indian migration to mainland France. Nevertheless, the earlier contacts between the French and the Indians – colonialism, intellectual and cultural exchange, business networks, and indentured labour, produced the very starting point from where later migrations were constructed.

Since the 50’s , there has been a number of diverse migrations of Indians to France which are to be treated differently from one another.

3.1 Historical Policy on Immigration.

Once France became a nation state with a democratic constitution, it enshrined the norm of equal relations of all citizens to the government and also that of absolute religious neutrality of the state.

France attempted to do the same in its colonies in India. While Roman Catholic Indians were quick to adopt this (mainly to get jobs in the French civil services) , Hindus and Muslims were more reluctant to do so. Ultimately very few people actually chose to give up their religion(Sharma 2011:125-133)

Post Indian Independence,France quit its colonies gradually. However it ensured that anyone living in its colonies would have the right to choose French citizenship. Furthermore, minors living in its colonies pre independence would have the right to opt for French Citizenship post independence. This policy allowed thousands of people living in French Colonies in India – Pondicherry, Mahe and Chandernagore – to become French citizens (William 2013: 5-7)

3.2 Immigration in the 50’s

Thanks to French policies, when France gave up its territories in India,thousands of Indiansespecially from Pondicherry moved to France and got French citizenship.. They mostly came as students or took up Government or military Jobs. They also brought their wives and children along with them. While single women also came to France, most of the early original immigrants were male. Today almost 60,000 of these people with their roots in Pondicherry live in Paris and comprise a significant portion of the Indian diaspora.

Another group that comprises the Indian Diaspora are the “twice migrants.” They are people who first migrated (or their ancestors migrated) to French enclaves such as Mauritius or Vietnam. Later when those countries became Independent, they then had the option to choose French Citizenship and many did. Many of these people live in Paris today. In fact the number of Indo Mauritians living in Paris today (68%)12 is more than the number of people from Pondicherry.

In the 1980’s a number of Sikhs immigrated to countries in Europe including France fearing uncertain times in the wake of the militant Khalistan movement. These Sikhs however have not tied themselves down to France and are moving between a variety of other countries in Europe.

The period from the 1980’s also witnessed the strengthening of the legal position of the immigrants.The routinelyrenewable ten-year residence permit (the ‘ten-year card’) was introduced. Itpermitted all legal immigrants to permanent residence and shielded them from expulsion. The card ended the previous system withseparate residence and work permits. Card holders were given free access tothe labour market. Finally the latest wave of immigrants into France, like in Germany, are students and skilled workers, especially those with a technology background.

3.3 Demographics

Not much date is available on the demographic characteristics of the Indian population in France, because it is illegal to collect data about certain aspects of French population, such as sexuality, political beliefs, health, and ethnicity. Besides, it isargued that such data emphasize and encourage differences, rather than integration. As per the French approach, ethnicity is closely linked to the notion of citizenship. When one individual is given citizenship and the associated special relationship with the state, she/he will become completely French. Consequently then, the primary identity is that of being French. Not Indian. Ethnic identity is rendered redundant. So, when it comes to measuring migration, the only available information is about those who arrived in the country. But for those born in France, or those who have acquired French citizenship, no data exists for people with Indian ethnicity(, Indian NIC 2000).

Theoretically, this approach has been lauded, as well as criticised. According to this approach, all people with French nationality are the same. While some believe that this approach to statistics has been perceived as anti-racist, many critically assess that it pay no heed to sociological realities. While all people are ‘same’, access to housing, work and education is full of prejudices, based on socially constructed notions of race, which are steeped in racist ideologies of colonialism. It has been critiqued that mobilisation and acknowledgment of ‘ethnic categories’ in statistics, would be a healthier way of battling prejudice, than by just overlooking them (Thiney-Duvoy 2007)

3.4 Media Perception

The Indian community is largely ignored in mainstream media. They are often confused with other migrants from South Asia and clubbed together. Illegal immigrants from Pakistan have a negative reputation and are often misunderstood for Indian. Sikhs are often confused for Muslims (Moliner 2007:130)

According to William (2013: 15) some middle class French, especially women have an interest in Indian religions as well as aspects of the culture such as yoga, dance and music. However mostly there is little coverage on those Indians actually living in France except for when a famous person from India actually visits France such as a prominent politician or a movie star. There is a niche for Bollywood movies in France as well

3.5 Religion and Culture

The Indian Diaspora in France comprises of Hindus, Catholic Christians, Protestant Chrisians, Muslims, Sikhs and some Buddhists and Jains. As in Germany, Muslims and Christians from India already had pre existing structures they could use for worship while other faiths had to construct them. A few temples and Gurudwaras have now been built around Paris.

Various associations for Indians have also been established in France. (William 2013 :18). The associations mainly focus on three things: activities such as encouraging children to speak and write in Indian languages for children and thus maintain cultural heritage, providing a place for people to come together as a community through activities such as yoga, dance and music. Various Indian film festivals have been organized as well.

3.6 Integration

People from Pondicherry in particular, since they knew Frrench, integrated most quickly. French was already a language spoken in Pondicherry since it was a French colony(Tison 2008).They were employed quickly by the government and embraced the culture. However they retain many aspects of Tamil Culture at home such as language, food and dressing. The twice migrants of Mauritius and Madagascar also spoke French previously and got French nationality easily ( William2013: 25).

French Culture is secular and Muslims do not feel that comfortable with that ideology and society and thus form networks that are based on religion and not culture. The Gujarati community is not said to integrate that much with French culture but also appear to not associate much with other Indian migrants. First Generation Sikhs also have a hard time integrating into French Culture as certain laws such as the one that required them to remove their turbans in public places (The proposal for the policy was ultimately withdrawn) made them feel unwelcome. (Neiyyar 2012)

It can be observed that the integration model followed by France is assimilationist . It means that the Indian diasporic population must assimilate to the dominant culture and values of the host country and it has. Notions of superiority of that culture run deep. There are of course a lot of problems involved with integration in society. As a child a person learns a many social roles and behaviours. When they migrate, a lot of what they learned earlier may no longer be relevant to the new situation. They may grow up adopting values that are respected in the original country and completely rejected in the new one. To successfully become a part of the new society adaptation is the key. (Kirby 2007)

At the same time, it has been noted how France has been considerably accommodative to the minorities. They have full right to set up their own organisations, and full right to serve as Union representatives and officials. Therefore, the term ‘incorporation’, rather than assimilation is used, to apply to broaden the latter’s notion. This leaves some room for the immigrant groups to safeguard a distinct character. Hence, ‘insertion’ has come to be used vis-a-vis ‘integration’. Nationality shapes the nucleus of integration policy. Naturalisation is thus a means to integrate in France. (Parashar 2013)

4. UK

UK is one country, which has an Indian community truly representative of its diversity. Indians have been the chief people who benefited from the massive intake of skilled migrants (India NIC 2000). The intimate connection between the two countries is a result of the colonial connection between the two. This has played a role in the evolution of the Indian community in UK.

The origins of the current Indian Diaspora lies in myriad interactions between British Raj and India. The Begali community and the Parsi community of Gujarat came to Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries as qualified lawyers, doctors, professionals to settle down in the UK. The Indian community scene in UK was dominated by the Parsi population as the earliest settlers. During and Post world wars many British Indian Army soldiers who were part of the war effort. The British in India began recruiting their armies from northern regions. During WW II   , Britain was supported by its colonies and allies. The Indian army played a huge role in the war.

The largest settlements however, happened post 1947. Indians arrived in the UK in the 50s and 60s. Huge numbers of migrant workers, chiefly of Punjabi origin, left for UK in the consequences of the post world war II reconstruction efforts in industrial sectors. The second major wave in the 60s and the 70s when the PIOs primarily of Gujarati origin were compelled to leave former British colonies in East Africa for political reasons.1

The generation of transnational networks that facilitate the transfer of information, human and cultural capital was attributed to the foundations laid by these groups.. According to Poros (2001: 123) there are a number of categories of migration networks ; 1) those with hardly any previous ties to the country, such as the “Solitaries”; 2) those hired by the organizations, such as the “Chains” 3) migrants bound in complex relations of trust in high state niches such as the; diamond trade- the “trusties”; These are useful terminologies to grasp the myriad ways in which Indians have come to UK throughout. A minute number of migrants were solitaries, and recruitment was an important reason which led to migration of of Indians to UK (be it as Aiyyas, soldiers, teachers, and so on). It has been documented that the early migrants and settlers came from a wide variety of origins. Reasons for migration may not seem uniform, as they first came as individuals.

The 1999s and 2000s has witnessed a momentous rise in Indian students and professionals. And for us to be able to grasp these migrations, it important that historical contexts, political realities and theoretical debates are taken into consideration.

4.1Framework for understanding migration to UK

A lot has been documented about migrants, using traditional economic theories which treat migrants as victims of impersonal economic forces that determine their actions. Some theorists articulate that instead of using the traditional economic lens, there should be focus on how migrants move. (Arrango 2000: 283) Besides, an attempt should be made by researchers to grasp their movements by applying the same frame of reference the migrants apply, rather than just using some abstract economic impulses.

Although Poros’ term of ‘recruitment’- inspired migration in a way explicates the movement Indians to Britain post WWII, Britain used it gues worker scheme to lure less migrants than France and West Germany. However, the basis of chains had been put in place by the scores of Indian ex-military that continued to stay in Britain even after the wars got over. As mentioned above, these ex-soldiers were chiefly recruited from Punjab, Kashmir and Gujarat. They were in a position to inform their friends and family in India about the prospects of work and money earned in UK’s booming economy (Ali 2008:231, Robinson 1986:156 )

While the push and Pull factors are surely important, the above explains how the initial migrants came to Britain. One of the reasons (“push factors”) which determines the “hows” of migrations is the overpopulation and a surplus of labour, on often unreliable and overworked land. While these are not sole triggers for migration, they do play a role along with other pressures to increase the chances a group of people will migrate.

Cultural factors too can be used to describe such migrations- it is perceived to be a matter of honour in most parts of India ( North and South) if one accumulates money and wealth- a matter of ‘izzat’. And migration to Britain with its booming economy was seen as a easy route for many to gain wealth and honour for them.

The twice migrantswere the next important wave. Indians in East Africa faced enormous amount of discrimination in the newly independent states of East Africa. This resulted in large scale emigration. . While many moved to India, majority moved to UK, as they held British passports at that time. However, following t a bloodless coup in Uganda, Idi Amin in the 1970s expelled the Asians in his quest to make Africa only for Africans. Numerous debates have arisen, whether twice migrants could even be considered Indian ( Bachu 1985: 340)

Post the World War II phase the Indian migrants were employed as factory and construction workers. Later on, their women joined them, who also worked in manual positions. Over generations, Indians have been involved with a wide variety of occupations, partaking in the labour force as widely as their white counterparts. Although the twice migrants came to UK with limited resources, they very soon joined the British labour force. Recent Indian migrants have been partaking in the UK’s skilled service industries, while Indian students have generally funded their degrees with part time work, later going to high skilled work in UK, or going to India or elsewhere.

When one examines the political context, i.e. the laws, restrictions and loopholes, once sees the 1905 aliens Act, which was put in action to limit Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe. UK too, over a century put into action laws discriminating against immigrants. However, the 1948 citizenship act of UK and the Commonwealth act were uncommon acts, which invigorated immigration. This act permitted all subjects to travel everywhere within the metropolis. However, mounting fears about an inflow of immigrants let to the formulation of the immigration act 1962, which reduced the inflow of immigrants, and limited it to only a certain category, especially the ones with job offers. These laws were stringent, until Tony Blair’s new Labour government started to recognize that the British economy had a need for highly skilled immigrants. Hence, they tended to demonstrate a positive bias towards Indian workers when new visa openings happened In India, international education is considered favourably , hence many Indian students were attracted to study in UK.

Because of rising limitations on immigration, scores of post war migrants were compelled to make a choice of either staying in Britain, or risk returning, only to never return. Hence, while the new immigrants had not so positive views about the new home country, most made a choice to stay because of free education, health care, and other social services notwithstanding the presence of racism, job insecurities, or other non conducive factors. From these Indian immigrants, some married with local women, but mostly, extensive majority chose to bring their spouses from their homeland. Consequently then, post 1971, much growth of the Indian population in the UK has been enabled by natural increase. These initial migrants shortly set up their own communities. Now there are fourth and fifth generation descendants o migrants.

The present day policy framework for Visa application to UK, the point based system ( points are scored against a range of attributes such as age, qualifications, ability to speak in English) was introduced by the UK border agency, and got away with earlier visa applications. The objective to introduce this change was to restore public confidence in immigration controls and to better manage immigration so that the needs in the UK market can get a good response.

According to the UKBA website, there are five categories, which each have different sub sections. It depends on their tier about the different requirements they need ( More information can be found at the UKBA websitehttps://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-border-agency). Regardless of a huge quantity of articulations about diminishing rates of immigration in UK, along with a great deal of mixed messages sent out to potential migrants in the recent years, the trend is that UK remains moderately keen to continue accepting more Indian immigrants. 1

4.2 Media perception of the Indian community

Indians belonging to different genders, classes, and castes have resided in the UK for around 400 years and have been represented in different ways at different times and parts of the country.

The UK press is a colossal institution, both at a national and regional level. While local newspapersadopt a more neutral tone and report on local events. Hence, in town with more Indian populations, newspaper stories relating to Indians are more possible. The national newspapers, however, have more explicit political agendas. Therefore, they report Indians in differing ways. Left leaning papers like The Guardian, TheIndependent, and so on endeavour to portray multiculturalism and immigration in a favourable fashion. The right wing papers, on the other hand (such as Daily Mail )portray immigration in an unfavourable manner. There is generally a positive view of Indians because of their economic success and rise into the middle classes,, their high educational attainment and employment, and invisibility in crime statistics. The previous decade was a witness to angst against certain sections of the Press towards British and specifically Pakistani Muslims. The representation of Indian people in UK media has been inversely proportional to their size in UK. If they happen to appear, then it is mostly in stereotypical and simplistic characters and situations. (Huq 2013: 4)

Very few films have tried to delve into the Indian experience in Britain. The super hit Bend it like Beckham (2002) comes to mind, in which the protagonist, a British Indian who enjoys playing football had to counter numerous stereotypes about British Indian women. In this film, the lead actor is a feisty woman, unlike the common notion of a docile Indian woman.

Due to the widespread lack of representation,many Indians have initiated their own newspapers, television channels, and radio channels at the local level (Georgiou 2004).

Thus, as can be noticed, Indian migration to UK, has gone through successive waves influenced by transitioning social, legal and political contexts. Although one can say that migration has been unquestioningly shaped by long term economic and social trends, it is unfair to explain the migration of Indian population to Britain as an mechanical reaction to colonialism or the needs of the British economy. It’s also important to look at the agency of individuals, their strategies and plans which also contributed in their decision to move to Britain from their home countries.

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