27 Social Reform Movement in 19th Century India

Contents

1. Objective

2. Learning Outcome

3. Introduction

4. Defining Social Reform Movement

5. How is Social Reform Movement different from other related concepts

6. Socio-political roots and context of ‘Social Reform Movement

7. Areas of ‘Social Reform Movement’ in India

8. Contribution of socio-religious organisations:

8.1 Arya Samaj

8.2 Brahma Samaj

8.3 Prathana Samaj

8.4 Ramakrishna Mission

8.5 Christian Missionaries

8.6 Theosophical Society

8.7 Satyashodhak Samaj

8.8 Other initiatives and social reformers

9. Conclusion

1. Objective

This module seeks to conceptualise Social Reform Movement (SRM) in the early 18th and 19th Century in India. It explores the interpretation of Social Reform Movement under the broader arena of Social Movement. It also seeks to explore the context and area of the Social Reform Movement before independence. In addition, this module describes the contribution of various socio-religious organisations in bringing social reform and social change in India.

2. Learning Outcome

After reading this module, you will have an understanding of the following:

·         the definition of  Social Reform Movement (SRM)

·         the significance of SRM as compared to other related concepts

·         the relation between Social Reform Movement and Social Movement

·         the socio-political roots and context of SRM  in India in early 18th and 19th Century

·         the various areas  of SRM in early 18th and 19th Century

·         the role of various social reformers and various organisations in bringing change in the society.

3.  Introduction

Social reform is a popular term used in the social science academia. It is mostly a voluntary activity. Social reform movement normally originates from the awareness or promises of liberal philosophy, for example, ‘Suffrage movement’ which demanded right to vote for women in Great Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (Gore 1987). Social reformers in any movement make a plea to the affluent or powerful sections to leave an advantage and share the same with the powerless. A social reform movement generally occurs in an environment where there is an existence of right to freedom of expression or right to free association. In India, the eighteenth and nineteenth century’s social context, which led to the rise of middle class people and more specifically the secular or liberal or democratic norms, provided the impetus for social reform movements.

4.  Defining ‘Social Reform Movement’

There are many incidents of social reform activities in India during the nineteenth and twentieth century. The age old traditional practices that threatened the social harmony and constrained social development had been reformed during those days. The social reform movements tried to establish a new order in the society by developing favourable conditions and establishing modified values and practices in the social institutions and social life. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, the word ‘reform’ refers to ‘making changes (in something, especially an institution or practice) in order to improve’. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines it as ‘improvement by removing or correcting faults, problems, etc’. In order to make the concept further clear, Srivastava’s (1958) understanding can be cited here i.e. ‘Social reform entails change or replacement in the institutions which have become functionally irrelevant (totally or partially) to the contemporary social order causing loss of quality of life, deprivations, unrest and misery to sizeable section of the society.’ Sociologist Prof M. S. Gore’s (1987) perspective is little wider that includes cultural or behavioural aspects. He states, social reform ‘involves a deliberate effort to bring about a change in social attitudes, culturally defined role expectations and actual patterns of behaviour of people in a desired direction through processes of persuasion and public education’ (ibid.). Abolition of Sati, promoting women education, advocating women rights, struggle for improving the social life of the harijans or scheduled castes are the examples of social reform movements in India.

5.  How is ‘Social Reform Movement’ different from other related concepts?

The term ‘social reform’ is different from other related concepts like ‘revolt’ or ‘social movement’. Though there are some similarities in all these three terms, i.e. there is dissatisfaction in existing social situation, leaders mobilize other people of the society to wake and fight for the cause, and attempt to promote social life, sharp differences are found among those concepts. ‘Revolt’ is basically a violent action against an established government or ruler that attempts to radically overhaul or overthrow existing social structure or system or basic values that regulate them. For instance, revolt of Netherlands, often known as the Dutch Revolt, started in 1568, Nat Turner’s revolt in 1831 in Southampton County in Virginia, can be cited here. 

Social Movement is a broad term used with multiple meanings and interprets any collective effort on mass scale to tackle some widespread social problems that exist in the society for a long time. Few examples are labour movement, cooperative movement, peasant movement, reform movement, etc. The studies on social movements are domain of many academicians and important personalities namely historians, sociologists, political activists, journalists and so on. Herbert Blumer (1951) defines social movement as ‘collective enterprises to establish a new order of life’. According to Gusfield (1970), ‘social movements are socially shared demand for change in some aspect of social order’. Borrowing from Wilkinson, Oommen (1977) conceptualizes social movements as ‘those purposive collective mobilization, informed of an ideology to promote change or stability, using any means – violent or non-violent – and functioning within at least an elementary organizational frame-work’. There are many classifications of social movements. Few classify it from socio religious movements to secular movement, revolutionary movement, cooperative movement, etc. Some others classify movements into grassroots and macro movements. Some of the movements are known as the ‘forest’, ‘civil rights’, ‘anti-untouchability’, ‘linguistic’, ‘nationalist’ and other such movements. Some are based on the participants, like peasants, tribals, students, women, dalits, etc. Other modes of social movements are reformist, redemptive or transformatory, and revolutionary. In all these social movements, there is basically a desire of change in social order and a convergence between old and new values are found.

The above discussion indicates that social reform movement is a part of larger social movement. Social reform movement is normally non-violent in nature as many people remain satisfied with the existing practices and belief and believe that the whole system cannot be overthrown. A particular category of social reform movement may target removal of malpractices, irrational beliefs and values which cause sufferings of the people and establish rational values and practices in the social institutions or social system and create a more just and healthy society. Though diverse social movements are propagated by large number of masses, social reform movements in most cases are promoted by social reformers who challenge the social institutions and the evil practices. Reformers also influence powers to formulate new policies or enact laws in certain areas of life. For example, Raja Rammohan Roy advocated for abolition of Sati and finally the Bengal Sati Regulation Act 1829 emerged. Similarly, in response to the campaign made by Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act 1856 came in operation. The 19th and 20th century social reform movements of India took place mainly against the education, caste and gender discriminations but social movement comprises collective responses to a varied social problems.

6.  Socio-political roots and context of ‘Social Reform Movement’

We all know that the entry of several European powers like the Portuguese, the Dutch, the British and the French in search of trade and commerce since 1498 made India a theatre of conflicts in the middle of the eighteenth century. By 1750, the British emerged as a single power and could establish their political supremacy in India by 1750 and followed the French strategy to interfere in internal affairs or politics of the Indian states. In the next hundred years, the British wanted to have more and more economic gain from India by adopting different means like war, diplomacy and administrative measures. During that period, two important acts passed by the British Parliament made huge impact, i.e., one, the Charter Act of 1813 that abolished the British East India Company and allowed every British citizen to trade in India; and two, the Charter Act of 1833 which permitted the British citizens to own property in India. The enactments led many British people to establish factories, landlords to invest money for tea and coffee plantation, indigo and cotton cultivation, etc. The ultimate situation resulted the ‘Drain of Wealth’ and the process was called colonialism. Several nationalists like Ramesh Chandra Dutta, Dadabhai Naoroji, Ranade and Malaviya proved that India then became very poor and the cause of impoverishment of farmers or artisans was impact of colonial policy. 

The British knew that they were morally and ethically wrong. In order to justify their actions, they used many ideological bases i.e. mercantilism, orientalism, evangelicalism and utilitarianism. Mercantilism views that exports add to a country’s wealth and imports detract from it. Adam Smith criticized it though it was a dominating ideology for the European nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was basically an economic policy and a system of state regulated exploitation through trade. Orientalism is a view that refers to the study of culture and civilization of the orient. According to Romila Thapar (2002), orientalists are the scholars interested in Asia as this part of the world was understood to be unique and its glory lied in its spiritualism and other-worldliness. Orientalists are also called Indologists, i.e. who were interested in knowing India through its texts, predominantly religious. Orientalism influenced the establishment of both Asiatic Society in 1784 and Fort William College in 1800 in Calcutta. This policy helped the British to take initiative to educate every British officer on local language, customs, laws or traditions for better work at their place of posting. Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement that appeared in the eighteenth century England. Unlike the ideals of Orthodox Church, it wanted to initiate reform. Evangelists were against ‘Indian Barbarism’ and wished to ‘civilize India’. They proposed ‘improvement’ and ‘the policy of assimilation of India with the mission of Britain’. The idea was well accepted by many British people as it was useful to acquire more properties in India. Macaulay suggested western education to civilize Indian, though his view was against the orientalists. Finally, many debates, discussion and intervention of Raja Rammohan Roy helped to introduce western education. Utilitarianism refers to philosophy or ethics to judge whether an action is right or wrong. Utilitarians have strong faith in pragmatism or rationality or reason. Sir William Jones, Charles Grant and James Mill were well known utilitarians of British India. They thought that law could bring change in the barbarian image of India and therefore a series of laws including penal codes were enacted to civilize and improve India. Thus, in the name of ‘progress’ or ‘improvement’ or ‘civilizing India’, the above ideological bases helped to firm the root of ‘British Raj’ in India.

The introduction of western education as one of the many initiatives to civilize India had a tremendous impact. In spite of the huge debate between the ‘Orientalists’ and ‘Anglicists’, the constant push from the Christian missionaries, liberals and utilitarians compelled the British colonial ruler to introduce western education after 1813. Several provisions in this regard were made i.e. low budget allocation for oriental learning; availability of English books in low prices; replacement of court language to English from the Persian; opening up of English colleges in Dacca, Patna, Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi and Barielly; etc. The Wood’s Despatch of 1854 further guided educational development in India and thus Calcutta, Bombay as well as Madras Universities were established in 1857. The western education ultimately brought the spirit of nationalism, self-rule and self–reliance; faith in rationalism; awareness on colonial exploitation; new idea on justice and welfare concern for the underprivileged; etc.

It was noticed that the British rule developed a new social group in India, i. e. the salaried class who were engaged to run the British administration, for instance, managers, clerks, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. They were known as ‘middle class’. Introduction of western education enriched the middle class and their consciousness. Number of English educated people increased, many of them developed western outlook and emerged as intelligentsia. They wanted to aware common masses to fight against social evils, parochial casteism, British exploitation and injustices. They used many newspapers as their weapons to raise consciousness. There were 475 newspapers in India by 1875 and many of the powerful newspapers were run by fearless nationalists. Important personalities like Raja Rammohan Roy, Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra, M. G. Ranade through influential writing wanted to develop the spirit of nationalism and achange through social reform. Renaissance started in India. Many voluntary organizations or religious organizations emerged to fight for the social cause to bring a reform.

7. Areas of ‘Social Reform Movement’ in India

Social reform initially started as a movement on education and opening up of new schools or colleges to promote education. Western educated people realized and identified superstitions and social evil practices among traditional Indian communities with regard to spread of education, i.e. education was restricted to the upper caste communities like Brahmins, Khastriyas and Vaishyas due to their social status and engagement in certain occupation such as village record keeping, village court, etc. The lower caste shudras were not allowed to enter the orbit of education system. The British educational drive played an important role towards engagement of a number of occupational communities as well as social groups. British vested interests along with social reform movements helped many communities to come forward to get modern education.

Another concern was spreading education to women. The importance of formal education to women was recognized by the social reformers in early nineteenth century. Efforts were made to spread education initially in metros and the pioneering steps came from the Christian Missionaries in the early era of nineteenth century who established a number of schools and colleges especially for women. Some of the reformers those advocated for women education were Raja Rammohan Roy in Calcutta and Jotiba Phooley in Pune. Phooley established special school for women to educate not only to urban women but also to the rural unreached. A few reformers like Ranade and Phooley educated their wives first. Dhondo Keshav Karve in Maharastra, P.S. Sivaswamy Iyer in Madras also advocated for women’s education.

The movement for spread of education among women followed another direction, i.e. improvement and amelioration of women. A number of social reformers recognized the discrimination, customs, superstitions or evil practices towards women and believed those practices need to abolish. One of such evil practices was Sati system among upper caste Hindu community. Women represented a helpless condition and had extreme low status, i.e. they had no education rights or property rights or provision of remarriage. Child marriage was highly prevalent and overall status of women was always low and dependent. The social reformers advocated for raising marriage age and widow remarriage. These new values were inculcated and established through a number of initiatives, i.e. through writings in newspapers, discussion in the public forums, speeches, argument, dramas, etc. Though the message was advocated strongly, the change in the women status was slow.

Another area of reform was related to Caste. Caste based discrimination was very much prevalent in Indian Society for allocation of jobs or purity concept. In the rural areas the supreme power was in the hand of the land owners or moneylenders or Brahmins who practiced it always. British rule for the first time established a centralized system of administration but these people got upper hand and acted as gate keepers. Though British or Christian missionaries wanted a casteless society, Brahmins whether in the north or east or west or south India, took it as a ritual. Some of the upper caste liberal minded people, who spoke at the public places for removal of caste system, followed it very much at home. In the railway compartment, government offices and urban areas casteism was less prevalent. Our constitution makers and religious reformers proclaimed abolition of untouchability through social reform movement.

8.  Contribution of Socio-Religious Organisations:

8.1 Arya Samaj

Social reform movement in North India was led by Arya Samaj. It was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati on 10th April, 1875 in Bombay. Swami Dayananada Saraswati, one of the makers of modern India, expressed the need for modification of indigenous orientation and realized an importance of new social, religious and economic orders. He was not a follower of western education or western culture and explained the significance of Hindutva. Swami Dayananda Saraswati was inspired by the Vedic values, wisdom and truth and at the same time wanted to change the evil practices under Hindu religion. He developed Arya Samaj with the principles of Veda as the ultimate source of truth. Opposition to dowry, caste system, idol worship, opposition to child marriage, polygamy and believe in female education were the various areas of work of Arya Samaj.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati noticed that lower caste people had no access to Veda. Arya Samaj advocated that caste system should be removed and Veda should be accessible to everyone. Arya Samaj believed that Hindu society was rich in its tradition and Vedic values and with the modification of the evil practices it could regain its glory in the society. It improved social status of Hindu religion and prevented many Hindus to join other religions.

Arya Samaj also advocated for women rights and criticised the practice of Sati and Purdah system. It believed that women used to enjoy equal status with men during the Vedic period and later on their status in the society degraded. Arya Samaj emphasised a liberalised society where women would enjoy their freedom, dignity and worth. In order to encourage women’s education, Swami Dayananda Saraswati initially opened Kanya Pathshalas (schools for women) in 1870 and later on Arya Samaj established a number of such educational institutions like Gurukuls, Kanya Gurukuls, Schools and Colleges for the education of both males and females. Arya Samaj gained its popularity at the end of nineteenth century and became a powerful organisation to spread education and to bring social reforms especially in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh considering the Vedic religion and the best to revive the lost ideals of India.

8.2 Brahma Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy was a liberal person who refused to believe that Veda is the only source of true religion. He was rather in favour of the best principles of all religions and advocated for humanity, monotheism and social regeneration. He established Brahma Samaj in 1828 in Calcutta. He was one of the pioneer social reformers who was deeply influenced by the western ideas and advocated for removal of the evil practices or superstitions in the Indian society. Rammohan Roy, a linguist and western educated scholar, started Atemiya Sabha in 1814 to struggle against idolatry and evil practices or superstitions in the Hindu society. He also reached to the masses through print media and wrote Bengali articles in newspapers. The Brahma Samaj which he established played a very crucial role in Bengal renaissance. Roots of modern thinking can be traced back to the Brahma Samaj Movement. Raja Rammohan Roy advocated for the principles of supreme being and brotherhood and invited people to join them. He started the Brahma Sabha (Association of Brahmins) along with Dwarkanath Tagore in 1828. The main objective of this association was to spread the message of true religion. The Brahmo religion was founded in 1849 at Calcutta by Debendranath Tagore with the publication of “Brahmo Dharma” where the central belief was one God who is omnipresent and omniscient. This work established Brahmoism as a separate religion apart from all others. Later on, Brahmo Samaj was founded at Lahore in 1861 by Pandit Navin Chandra Roy to propagate the same.

Apart from philosophical ideals, Brahma Samaj became popular for its contribution to the social reform. It advocated for the abolition child marriage, removal of Sati practice and austere widowhood. Brahma Samaj also condemned polygamy, caste system, dowry system, and subjugation of women and promoted widow remarriage, opposing to devdasi system and other practices of women oppression. Brahma Samaj advocated for western education and scientific knowledge, spread of knowledge to every segment of the society and universal access to information. Debendranath Tagore, who was also associated with Brahma Samaj, gave more priority to the indigenous language and culture and the development of Vedanta. Another intellectual Kesab Chandra Sen who started Bharatiya Brahma Samaj wanted a total social revolution and social reform especially for the women. He opened schools for girl and encouraged inter caste marriage.

8. 3 Prarthana Samaj

The Prarthana Samaj (‘Prayer Society’ in English) was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in Bombay during 1867. The society was inspired by Brahmo Samaj but it was more liberal than the principles of Brahmo Samaj. Brahmo leaders Keshab Chandra Sen, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade and historian Ramkrishna Bhandarkar also joined the Prarthana Samaj. The main faith of the Prarthana Samaj was to believe in one god and promulgation of theistic worship. They wanted to develop a changed socio-religious outlook among the people in general. Prarthana Samaj opposed the existing caste system and discrimination practices based on caste. Abolition of untouchability was also combated. They advocated for the change where Brahmins were in superior power and the lower caste community and the dalits were oppressed. They took initiative to uplift lower caste communities and promoted inter caste marriages. The low status of women was also a major concern for the followers of the society. During that time, child marriage was a prevalent practice. Prathana Samaj advocated for abolition of child marriage and introduction of widow marriage as widows had significantly low status. Other important areas of concern were spreading of awareness on female education, opening of night schools, opening of orphan homes and widows’ shelter homes. Though Prarthana Samaj criticised the evil social customs and practices, it was not radical to break orthodox Hindu tradition and never forced members to give up caste or idol worship or the traditional social customs.

8.4 Ramkrishna Mission

Ramkrishna Mission was conceived and started by Swami Vivekananda towards the end of nineteenth century, i.e. in 1897. The Mission was founded on the philosophy of Shri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Shri Ramakrishna’s ideology stood on the truth in religion and spirituality. He expressed the selfless devotion for God and compassion for serving human suffering. He advised to practice spiritualism of Veda and Upanishad to have a simple as well as pure life. Though Ramakrishna allowed idol worship, he emphasized on spiritualism instead of customs or practices. His disciple Swami Vivekananda interpreted the Hindu spiritual concept with modern rationality and logic. The doctrine of the mission was to serve mankind to serve the god. The ideology of Ramakrishna Math and Mission consisted of the eternal principles of Vedanta and Gita as lived and experienced by Sri Ramakrishna and expounded by Swami Vivekananda. Ramakrishna Mission played an important role in social reform in the nineteenth century. The major areas of work initiated under it were serving the mankind. Education was realised as an important tool for rational thinking. Ramakrishna Mission started providing free and basic education to the children.Apart from excellent academic performance, the students won laurels in sports and other extracurricular activities. They also started working with the relief and rehabilitation work during different disasters and distresses. One of the important mandates was women welfare work that included a number of activities like educational services to the girls, care and protection for women, old age homes and shelter homes, etc. As they believed that youth was the symbol of energy, youth welfare activities were initiated by setting up of different centres, for instance, recreational and cultural centres called Balak Sanghas (for children), Yuvak Sanghas (for youths), etc. Services in rural and tribal areas were also another area of work where a number of developmental activities including livelihood development, educational and vocational development, and medical services were promoted.

8.5 Christian Missions

Christian Missionaries played a significant role in India during British rule. Though initially Christian Missionaries were not allowed to spread their activities in Hindu dominated area, British government soon realised the need for religious and moral improvement among the inhabitants of India. One of such examples was William Carey’s work against Sati practise and banning of the same. British authorities started helping missionaries financially to spread the outreach. Considering the lower caste communities had a low status and a stigma of untouchability in the predominating Hindu society, Missionaries started working on depressed classes and tribal through conversion into Christianity and also providing education and livelihood support. Bulk of tribal communities mainly from the Chotanagapur, Orissa and North East India were converted in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Missionaries also worked for health and hygiene and provided medical support to women as well as children. A number of livelihood projects were initiated by the missionaries to engage the backward communities. The most pioneering work of the Christian Missionaries was spread of English education by establishing a number of schools and colleges across country. Some of the outstanding Christian schools and colleges of India including those for women today are the result of the revolutionary efforts of missionaries. The Christian colleges and schools played an important role on Indian education by introducing English and scientific method of education. It was the result of that education that the enlightened Hindu social activists realised the need to reform their religion. The missionaries not only stressed on moral reforms, they also questioned social evils like untouchability, caste discrimination, oppression of women, etc. that existed in Indian society. They also argued against the practices like widow burning, child marriage, drowning of children in sacred rivers and so on.

8.6 Theosophical Society

The Theosophical Society emerged in southern and western part of India after a few people got inspired by the old Indian thoughts and culture of our nation. The word theosophy derived from the greek words theos and sophia which meant god and wisdom. Thus, theosophy meant wisdom concerning god or the knowledge of the absolute. The Theosophical Society was founded in late 1875, in New York City of the United States of America, by Russian noble woman Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and American Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, along with attorney William Quan Judge and a number of other individuals interested in the philosophy expounded by Madame Blavatsky. In 1879, the principal founders, Madame Blavatsky and Col Olcott, moved to India, where the Society spread rapidly. They established the Society’s International Headquarters in Adyar, a suburb of Chennai, where it has since remained. The Theosophical Society of India was established in India in 1986 and a number of centres were opened at various places like Bangalore, Bombay, Surat, Ludhiana, etc. Its main exponent in India was Mrs. Annie Besant. In her words, the mission of the Theosophical Society was revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient religions like Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. This brought a new sense of self-respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the future and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life or beginning of rebuilding of the nation. The theosophical society believed in karma, rebirth, mokshay and also nirvana.

Theosophical society contributed to the social reform. It not only stood for revivalism, it also sought for the abolition of child marriage, illiteracy and alcoholism. Apart from it, the society’s contribution towards education and research was worth mentioning. Besant laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benaras which was integration of Hindu religion and western science. Despite its achievements, the spread of theosophical society and its ideals were limited to certain population mainly to the upper class community with westernized values.

8.7 Satyashodhak Samaj

Jyotiba Phule realised the problems of existence of lower caste community (like Mali community) and the dominance of upper caste community like Brahmins in the society. He was a reformer and organised a movement against it in Maharashtra. The Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers Society) was established by Phule, as a part of his movement, with the leadership of the backward class community mainly from Malis, Telis, Kunbis, Saris and Dhangars. The main objective of the movement was to spread awareness, provide social services and spread education among lower caste community. Phule’s work towards Sarvajanik Satyadharma was accepted by the common masses. His aim was an ideal society with a complete abolition of caste system and socio-economic inequalities. This movement targeted the lower caste community for uplifting and giving them a sense of identity. Phule contributed towards women education. He along with his wife started schools for the girls. Phule also advocated for widow remarriage which was one of the pioneering initiatives of his movement.

8.8 Other Initiatives and Social Reformers

Many other social reformers also played significant roles in Socio-Religious movement. One of the great intellectuals of Bengal, Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, played crucial role in Bengal renaissance. He was popular as a great Sanskrit scholar and his major contribution included spread of education including women education, emancipation of women and widow remarriage. The western India also witnessed a number of social reformers during the second half of the nineteenth century. The most notable personalities were Mahadev Govind Ranade, Vishnu Parashuram Shastri Pandit, Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandakar, etc. They encouraged widow remarriage, education for the backward communities, preached monotheism and denounced caste distinctions. In the regeneration of the Muslim society, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan played a vital role. He was fascinated with the western education, tried to modernise Muslim outlook and encouraged Muslim population to accept services under the British government. He criticised the narrow interpretation of Quran and realised that Muslim youths needed holistic education including science and technology. Anglo-Oriental College of Aligarh was established by him in 1875 where both western sciences and Islamic theology were subjects. Later on, it became Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh Movement was also started with the vision of education for Muslim youths and religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community. Among the Sikhs, Sing Sabha was formed by the prominent Sikhs in 1873. The Sabha aimed to restore Sikhism to its past purity and brought the benefit of western enlightenment through modern education to the Sikh community. Dayal Das, a pioneer Sikh reformer, started Nirankari movement and preached against idol worship as well as Hindu ceremonies. Another Sikh reformer Baba Ram Singh spearheaded Namdharai movement with a vision of total reshaping of Sikh community

9.  Conclusion

The above discussion shows that the age-old traditional practices or superstitions or orthodox beliefs were challenged and criticised during 19th century social reform movements. The movements brought a new order for scientific reasoning, removal of unjust practices and the need of a more liberalised society. The present module also portrays the actual seeds for social reform movements that were sown during 16th, 17th and 18th centuries with the advent of European powers, their domination and influence. The Europeans brought transformation in India in the power structure and governance systems along with socio-cultural, religious and intellectual changes. The reform movements those emerged in various parts of India, whether in the north (e.g. Arya Samaj), in the east (e.g. Brahma Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission, Christian Missionaries), in the west (e.g. Prarthana Samaj) or in the south (e.g. Theosophical Society), focused more on the religious perspective and wanted to make rectification in the age-old religions with liberal ideas and changes. Thus, the reforms were dictated by the ideas and institutions of colonial and indigenous patriarchy. It has therefore been argued that though reform movements initiated changes in social life, these had less impact on women status. It is true that educational reform or introduction of western education during the British rule had tremendous impact on certain sections of our society. But that could not check social evils like child marriage, dowry, or casteism. No legal machineries were also available in this regard in India till framing of the Constitution.