16 Cultural Approach

Sanjay Kumar

Introduction

Culture is a very comprehensive concept. It is a group behavior characterized by some common traits like language, cuisine, arts, religion, clothes, rituals, lifestyle, music, etc. Culture encompasses the shared patterns of behvaiour as also the interactions between members of the group. The word ‘culture’ comes from the Latin word, ‘colere’ meaning ‘to tend to the earth and grow’. It also means ‘nurture’ and ‘cultivation’. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the other through direct and indirect means. Culture is a way of life and grows in the process. It is reflected through symbols, speeches, folklores, stories , ritual ,habits and also through writings of leaders and people alike. Culture is public, yet individuals contribute to its growth and maintenance. The world, thus, is dotted by many cultures, the Eastern, Western, Middle-East, Latin and African. It is a system of knowledge that is shared by a group of people. It is

socially transmitted through communication. It is the sum total of the learned behavior of a people in a group. Culture is shared pattern of interactions and behavior. It includes all the traditions cognitive constraints, rituals that are imbibed through a process of socialization. ‘By culture, we mean all those historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for the behaviour of men’.1 Culture of a group, while bonding the members and giving them a unique identity also distinguishes them from the other groups. It adopts to the changing times and according to the needs of the successive generations. In doing so, culture discards what is obsolete and redundant and absorbs what is fresh and challenging.

‘Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving interpreting, expressing and responding to the social realities around them.’2 Culture explains why people behave as they do for they have various influences working on them. Culture is Kluckhohn, C. and Kelly, W. H. (1945). The concept of culture in R. Linton (ed.), The Science of Man in the World Culture, New York, pp. 78-105.

  shared understanding but there are inherent differences too. It is a sum total of the experiences of the people. There are efforts to improve or force one’s interpretation on the other. These intra-cultural differences can become very bitter and can be earnestly contested. ‘Cultural symbols, metaphors, and narratives have cognitive meanings that describe group experiences, high affective salience that emphasizes unique intergroup bonds that of set one group’s experience apart from that of others, and scripts that direct action. People draw upon them to explain the past, interpret the present, and evaluate future action.’3 Culture opens doors to the minds of people and helps peep into the mind-set, attitude and behavior of people. It helps to forecast the future of the society. ‘ A nation is a cultural entity, a body of people bound together by a shared cultural heritage.’4 A nation is shaped by its history ,its past experiencs as wellas its culture. Nations that are steeped in culture and history are more stable. There is more unity among the people and an urge to stay together. The Greeks, Russians, Germans , the English associate their history with their very strong traditions and culture.’ From this perspective, natons can be regarded as ‘ organic’, in that they have been fashioned by natural or historical forces rather than by political ones. This may, in turn, mean that ‘ cultural’ nations are stable and cohesive,bound together by a powerful and historical sense of national unity.’5 Culture provides stability to a nation and a will to stay together.

3    Marc Haward Ross, Culture in Comparative Political Analysis in Lichbach, Mark Irving, Zuckerman, Alan S. (ed.), Comparative Politics, Rationality, Culture and Structure, 2009, Cambridge University Press, p. 138.

4     Andrew Heywood, Political Theory, An Introduction, 2012, Palgrave Macmillan, p.98

5     Ibid, p.100    https://in.images.search.yahoo.com

Why Study Culture in Politics?

‘In an interpretation, presciently published before 9/11, Huntington suggested that cultures, rather than countries, would become the leading source of political conflict in the twenty-first century.’6 The western societies have, for a long time, defined cultures in just two categories – one western culture which is considered superior and the other non-western which is supposed to be inferior and has to conform to the western culture. Non western-culture is supposed to be restrictive, backward and not based on reason, rationale and logic. ‘Politics, or the politics of the West’s view of itself, denoted Reason’.7 Culture can lead to co-operation but can also lead to conflict. The Europeans trained themselves to rule in the name of reason, equality, freedom and justice. The forms shifted from narrow nationalism, ideologies to civilizations and cultures in the last century. Culture can be a strong factor to bind groups even if they are spread across countries. The example of Russians extending diplomatic support to the Serbs in the Yugoslavia conflict of 1990s is an example. In 2006, Russia again extended help to the citizens of Belarus, as they shared cultural ties, kinship with the Russians.

Even within a country, culture influences politics. There are some values in a society that become political issues, like ban on entry of women in many religious places in India, stem-cell Hague and Harrop, Comparative Government and Politics, An Introduction, 2013, OUP, p. 102

Jayal, Mehta, The Oxford Companion to Politics in India, 2015, pp. 254-55.

  Research, cloning, abortion rights, lifestyle choices like live-in relationships, lesbian and gay rights in some other countries etc. Any talk of politics suppressing culture would be a joke. Politics can influence culture but the link would always be there. Culture would continue to influence politics and politics would keep trying to make laws according to the cultural norms of the society and at its worst, try to change, sabotage or modify culture. But doing the latter is a herculean task. The example of India during Pt. Nehru who considered himself a modernist is worth analyzing. ‘….while the post-colonial state accepted the diagnosis of the colonial state that ‘culture’ in India embodied unreason and backwardness, the Nehruvian state, unlike the British Raj, moved sharply to maintain that culture could be smashed by state-directed economic modernization’.8

One gets a broader perspective of people’s background and their various interactions. Study of culture of a group helps to understand their beliefs, reasoning and their lifestyle which helps to understand their attitude to politics. How people believe in the political system can be better understood when we understand the pre-conceived assumptions, attitude, emotions and notions of the people. The perception of people decides and dictates their actions. The biases and prejudices of the people go a long way in participation or non-participation of the people. The thought process of the people has a direct impact on the behavior of people. The culture shapes the values and beliefs of people which are passed from one generation to the other. Culture is an ‘identity-card’ which helps to maintain the distinctiveness of a group. It helps to iron out differences among the various members. Culture is a social reality. The effects of culture are absorbed so subtly that it is difficult to study the direct impact of culture. But, the effect of culture on politics is seen in the long run and if scrutinized minutely one can realize the impact.

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Culture contributes resources and materials which are used by leaders to organize and also mobilize the people, various groups and the machinery of the state. The various groups use culture in the political field to pursue goals which they otherwise would not have followed directly or would have had difficulty in following. An individual’s demand is often relegated to the background but if the same demand becomes attached to many, there are more chances of a greater number of people being mobilized and the demand being fulfilled. There are many formal and informal groups which focus on specific cultural practices. They become major tools to fulfill certain demands. These groups have the capacity to present the demands in various ways, for they know the bent of the majority of the members of a group. This capacity helps them to knock at the right doors and achieve their goals. Religion, region, language, colour, caste, creed can mobilize people. These are all very strong emotions that can move people. These have to be taken into account by any political system while framing laws or making any policy. Human survival and maintenance of relations as well as their every day actions are based on these traits. Culture is reflected in the traditions, stories, poems, cuisine and education of a society and the latter wants it to be continued. A political system has to develop but keeping in mind all these informal but very important factors. A lot of interaction takes place, through all these informal factors. A lot of discussion, debate in these areas leads to not only people getting mobilized but also the spreading of new ideas or at other times, modified ideas. Problems of all hues are discussed and new facts are interpreted and re-interpreted. These informal factors are very powerful and can lead to short-term as well as long-term repercussions. Culture cannot be alienated or detached from the political system for it is culture that helps us to understand people and the latter are the main actors in any political system who behave as they have been conditioned by the society in which they have taken birth and matured as adults.

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How culture Effects Politics

The most important contribution of culture is that it provides a framework, a model, an explanation for interpreting the motives of people of a group. Sometimes, words might not be spoken but actions can reveal them true nature that might be concealed among many layers. Culture puts emphasis on motives because they help us to understand the individual vis-à-vis the group. ‘Motives are central to cultural analysis because they offer a mechanism to link individual action to a broader social setting’.9 Interests can be gauged for they are visually transparent, but motives can be seen’……. only through empirical analysis of particular cultural contents’.10 Culture, in developing countries,has more significance because these societies are bound by culture which encompasses traditions as well as the rituals . Culture prods people to launch movements. In many cases violation of culture has forced people to come together to protest against the colonial regimes. The movement against , ‘ apartheid,’in Africa , or the various protests against the British in India owe their origin to the power of culture in the respective societies.

9  D’Andrade and Strauss, 1992, quoted in Marc Howard Ross, Culture in Comparative Political Analysis, in Lichbach, Mark Irving, Zuckerman, Alan S., Comparative Politics, Rationality, Culture and Structure, 2009, Cambridge University Press, p. 140.

     It is the cultural realm in which the political activities unfold. Culture and political activities are connected. Through culture, the political system gets a better understanding as to what is valuable to people and what is not. The political system, the leaders realize the sensitiveness of certain aspects of culture and do not touch them. They realize that people would fight once certain issues, objects that they consider invaluable. Culture helps the political system understand the causes behind certain conflicts , ‘ ……….the rules (both formal and informal) by

which politics takes place, and who participates in it. In doing so, culture defines interests and how they are to be pursued.’11 Cultural analysis also helps to link the individuals’ identity with the collective identity of the group of which they are members. This helps to reinforce the bond between the individual and culture and also helps to solidify the group identity of the concerned group. The sharing and caring among members of a group is a great factor to understand why the individuals and the group behave as they do. The interplay among the members of the group, the internal dynamics within a group affect the society at large and then the political system.

Though culture is seamless and one usually assumes that it has no boundaries yet each culture has its boundary. Various groups are linked by kinship, gender, livelihood, common past etc. which regulate the behavior of its members as well as the group. It also helps to analyse the actions of the group when they interact with each other. The symbols images, narratives and events all have a direct or indirect impact on the political system. It is culture that keeps these safe.

In today’s contentious politics, the narratives etc. serve the purpose of guiding the political system. It answers questions like, e.g., why are certain areas more prone to riots? Why are certain groups alienated from the system or why a certain group has got alienated at a particular time? And many more.. Only when we study the roots that go deep into the past, can we work on a ‘blueprint’ for further action. Such narratives, images etc. can serve as causes for certain action or, at times, restrict action. The group passes its experiences of ‘happiness, ‘trauma’, ‘pain’ to its successive generations. The Marxists , on the other hand, consider politics, culture and law as a part of the superstructure. ‘ In his ( Marx) view, politics together with law and culture , was part of a ‘ superstructure’, distinct from the economic ‘ base’, which was the real foundation of social life.’ 12He ardently believed that the superstructure reflected the economic base. For the Marxists , culture was also one of the factors that led to the suppression of the proletariat. Culture was also one of the garbs that helped in exploiting the workers and keeping them bound in chains.

It is crucial to examine the rituals, the traditions and events of a community to understand its reaction to the events in the present. A society’s ‘inclusion’,and ‘exclusion’;policies , all have to be studied keeping the larger frame-work of culture in mind. ‘Cultural expressions and enactments connect group narratives and identity in many ways. Public ceremonials, religious ceremonies, calendrical festivals and holidays, theatrical presentations, television programs, literature, public discourse, distinctive clothing and foods and language use are some of the common ways that narratives – or key parts of them – are enacted, communicating a reinforcing in-group understanding.’13 Andrew Haeywood, Op. cited no. 4, p.59

Marc Howard Ross, ‘Culture in Comparative Political Analysis in op. cit., n. 3, p. 147.

       Culture helps to explain events in an emotional method. Of course, this leads to a lot of contentious viewpoints. Each group, each society would have its own version and it would be difficult to know what is the real picture. Yet, one could endeavour to trace the common thread running through the events. For example, in wars, partition, genocide, the common thread is molestation, violation and killing of women, children and all those who are vulnerable. There is consensus on some general things. The explanation as well as the viewpoint is mutually understood. One’s attitudes can be of real significance politically and can illuminate the way to find solutions for problems faced by any society. The various traditions, habits and rituals help to understand the political reality. These traditions and past history bring people together. These help people to develop their political system with the advent of new ideas. They also help the society to be bound together and establish a set of priorities.

Culture can, at times, lead to clash of societies. We have the examples of the Islamic headscarves, the turban and kirpan (dagger) according to the Sikh religion which have led not only to skirmishes in some political systems like France, United States etc. but also to serious conflicts. One culture created confusion, especially when it was practiced in an alien land which did not have the knowledge of the same but which boasted or showed a willingness to adapt to new.

Cultural analysis helps us to frame political actions, make important strategies and have a broader perspective. We can understand the working of political institutions better when we are familiar with the lifestyle of the people in that particular society. Culture shapes the behaviour of people. The political institutions, both formal and informal, reflect the people’s culture as well as that of the region. Culture is usually bereft of strong, clearly demarcated boundaries. Culture, in this era of technology and a global world, flow into each other, though each trying to keep its uniqueness. This leads to problems as well as to the broadening of culture. Representation of South Asians in the governments of Canada, United States,or celebrating Diwali, Gurupurab in the White House in the United States, Queen Elizabeth’s visit to a Gurudwara in U.K. on the occasion of her 90th birthday are all examples of culture influencing politics. Going deep into another’s culture, exploring it and understanding is vital to broaden one’s attitudes. Such a study of ‘culture’ would be of utmost use to many of our legislators, who pride themselves as ‘representatives’ of their people. Any law based on ‘culture’ of the people has more chances of being accepted and less chances of its violation. A study of culture can lead to ‘healthy’ politics.

Conclusion

We can conclude by saying that understanding, analyzing and scrutinizing culture can give us a better perspective of the behavior of people. One is in a better position to understand the interactions of a people of a group. ‘Culture frames the rules that can guide political action even in the absence of strong institutions to enforce them, and it are crucial in defining the parties’ competing interests and divergent interpretations of what is at stake.14 There are a few who criticize for using ‘culture’ to the study of politics. They feel culture differs, it is vague, lacks precision, does not have tools that can be tested etc. But we cannot deny that being informal actors they do have the power to influence politics of a society. Culture is natural; it is ingrained in the society and is unconsciously passed to the people. Change in culture leads to changes in the attitude and behavior of the people and it affects the political system also. Cultural narratives are used by leaders to usher in change. People tend to follow or welcome those changes easily which are encouraged by their culture. Culture, then becomes a bridge as well as the support. Culture appeals to people, it mobilizes people and it binds them together. It is about believing what is usually right and has been passed down through ages, though with minor changes.

Cultural analysis might be just explanations and might not be rigorous but they have traits of the truth. It’s shared account with each individual, each group and each generation, adding its bit. Difficult to analyse, one thing is for sure, that truth and facts would not have been lost in the labyrinth. It needs to be found. This leads to offer and then create plausible interpretations. Even disagreements among people are of great political significance for they show the adaptability, acceptance and rejection mode of the group. ‘No society is totally integrated or even in agreement on all important matters. As a result, cultural analysis might utilize survey data to document the nature of divisions in a country, but it is good to go a good deal further, trying to make sense of why, how and if specific values are important to people, the connections between value differences and political and personal identity and the dynamics of bitterly  contested political meanings and actions within a common cultural framework.15 Culture is both a journey and an end. It is a movement that absorbs and discards much with every decade. It helps us to peep into the society and its members and explain a lot through its various rituals, traditions and narratives. ‘ A civilization – based world order is emerging : societies sharing cultural affinities cooperate with each other ; efforts to shift societiesfrom one civilization to another are unsuccessful; and countries group themselves around the lead or core states of their civilization.’16 The cultural differences can mar political unity. Immigration and movement of people in the world is leading to a lot of cultural changes, modification and absorption. Culture is ‘……… shared sets of socially produced and ( yet) biologically inscribed meanings.’ 17 Politics

is about resource allocation which leads to political issues. Culture is in the midst of all these issues. One can trace many conflicts that have their roots in the society and its culture. India,for example, is one case which reflects to what extent and how culture can effect politics and vice-versa. The reservation policy, removing untouchability, compulsory primary universal education to all are examples of programmes that are imposed by the political system , yet are, unfortunately , not supported by culture and customs which support the Varna system. It has taken all efforts of the State to implement these programmes yet they remain far from being effective. Cultural approach cannot be brushed aside citing culture to be a non- entity or a factor that has a minimal role. Culture is centred around people’s values and beliefs. It has the power to either create rupture in the the political system or to repair and maintain it. The riots in various parts of India, the clash between the Sunni and Shias in many Islamic countries, the discrimination against women, clashes because of religion are all a part of the cultures of societies.A political system has no choice but to keep the cultural aspect in mind while framing rules and regulations. Culture, at times, defies logic and rationality but appeals to the people. They are emotionally attached to their culture and this to be kept in mind while mulling over any link between politics and culture. How is culture articulated, communicated and maintained is important. ‘ A more profitable way to address the enormous and baggy topic of politics and culture is to think through the technologies of power and rule that are poposed by their coming together in different combinations.18 Only when we study their strength and weaknesses when they come together, can we frame plausible explanations.

Suggested Readings

• Caramani, Daniele, Comparative Politics, 2011, Oxford University Press.
• Gauba, O.P. , An Introduction to To Political Theory, 2013,Macmillan, Delhi.
• Hague, Rod and Harrop, Martin, Comparative Govt. and Politics, An Introduction, 2015, Palgrave Macmillan, Replika, New Delhi.
• Harris B. Peter, Foundations of Political Science, 1976, Hutchinson, London.
• McKinnon, Catriona, Issues in Political Theory, 2012, Oxford University Press.
• Misra, K.K., Contemporary Political Theory, 1983, Pragati, Delhi.
• Andrew Heywood, Political Theory, An Introduction,2012, Palgrave Macmillan