12 Political Parties In Advanced Industrial Democracies

Pampa Mukherjee

Objectives of study:

• To understand the role of Political parties as a vehicle of change
•  To assess their role in advanced democracies
•  Their role in interest aggregation and articulation
• Political parties as representative of citizens
•  The role of parties in elections.

Democracy derives its essence from many elements in a political system. Democracy, in other words, means bestowing liberty and equality on its citizens. For this, democratic institutions have to function effectively. Elections held at regular intervals are one way of guaranteeing that representative institutions actually function and express the will of the majority. Elections are a process where the citizens come out in large numbers to either show their approval or resentment. Besides, the ruling party, the message is also given to the other parties which serve as opposition. The latter should be familiar with the pulse of the people as to what are the peoples’ aspirations and demands. In this process of elections, it is the political parties which play a vital role and provide elections with dynamism.

Political parties infuse the electoral process with energy and a strange sense of accomplishment. No election process can be complete without the existence and effective functioning of political parties. The latter act as an indispensable link between the people and the government. They also act as instruments of articulation and, then, subsequent synthesis of demands of various competing groups within a political system. In every society, be it traditional or modern, it is the political parties that help in raising the level of political consciousness among the people. So, political parties try to maintain stability in the political system. But, at the same time, the various political parties cannot be ignorant of the fresh winds that are blowing across the political system, all the time, heralding in new ideas. Then the political system also inducts new groups and individuals with myriad views into the political system. If the political parties do not entertain such new ideas or people with innovation than the political system would stagnate. While performing these roles, the political parties have to focus on the political and economic goals of a nation, both long-term as well as short-term. They play a crucial role as instruments of politicization of the masses and agents of social change. Simultaneously, they also mobilise and compete for popular support. Doing so, they derive support from different segments of the society. Most of the political parties have definite ideological orientations which help them to frame their programmes for the near future. And today, this becomes a challenge in itself because changes in any part of the world directly affect the political system of a State. Trade, Terrorism, Environment and Human Rights are just a few changes besides issues like internally growing strife among communities within States that affect politics. So, besides ideologies, the political parties have to incorporate changes within the parties keeping such issues in mind. It goes without saying that the idea of a ‘Welfare State’ has caught the fancy of the people in all nations and they expect the State to deliver. The political parties that aspire to come to power, in either developing countries or developed countries cannot shy away from this ideal of a ‘Welfare State’. Inevitably, the responsibility lies on the shoulders of the political parties who have to deliver a good standard of living along with food, clothing and shelter.

In the developing traditional societies as well as in the advanced, developed, industrial countries political parties play a very decisive role. They have to introduce their people/supporters to the modern institutions of government. So, they prove to be an indispensable link between the people and the institutions of government. In the political systems irrespective of development, the political parties have to provide a stable government and not only bring in new groups into the political process but also orient them towards the goals- economic, political and social of a Nation. This becomes a Herculean task in the under-developed as well as developing countries because the population is knee-deep in poverty, illiteracy, ignorance and has a tottering economy. Usually, these countries have been colonies so Independence gets along with it not only liberty but also responsibility. To make this transition from former colonies to a successful democratic self-governing the country requires the political parties to play their role diligently and with consistency. Paul R. Brass says the capacity of the ruling party in a new state to perform these tasks, depends upon how successful it is in the years after Independence.1 On the other hand, in the developed countries the people are aware and their expectations are high. So there also the political parties have to deliver but at a greater speed.

Burke explains party as ‘a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they all are agreed’.2 Political parties help people to crystalise their interests and give expression to them. It is through the elections that the political parties get a chance to transmit their views to the electorate. ‘In the elections it is decided who shall govern and who shall have control over government.3 Laski looks upon party as an organization, which seeks to determine the economic constitution of the state.4 Political parties are coalitions of groups of people who are politically motivated and desire to play a part in the process of decision-making of a country. The role of parties often changes with change in conditions within the country. Of course, changes in the global village, i.e. the international arena also lead to political parties adapting and adopting to the new that can be permanent or that might be transitional. In the developing countries, the role of political parties is to see that power is generated, mobilized and directed.5 In the Paul R. Brass, Factional Politics in an Indian State: The Congress Party in Uttar Pradesh, Berkeley and Los Angels, University of California Press, 1965, p. 1.

Quoted in M. Chatapati Rau, Indian Drama, Traditional Societies in Transition, Delhi, Allied, 1982, p. 88. Horst Hartman, Political Parties in India, Meerut, Meenakshi, 1977, p. 145.

B.B.  Misra, Political Parties in India, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1975, p. 1. A.S. Narang, Indian Government and Politics, Delhi, Gitanjali, 1992-93, p. 351.

developed countries the role of the political parties is to see that there is no misuse of power and power is used with responsibility for the good of the people at large. On the other hand, in the developed countries where democracy has firmly taken root, the role of political parties is to see that there is a peaceful and regular change of government. Political parties are a loose confederation of groups with a healthy sense of competition among themselves. These groups are called , ‘factions,’ and represent various thoughts within the Party. It is the breathing mechanism of any party and existence of factions to a limited extent keeps healthy debates alive. The factions keep a check on the organizational heads within the Party. As long as the criticism among these groups remains positive and constructive, the party benefits by becoming more mature and dignified. But if these groups get miserably divided then the party’s performance dips. These factions, then, are unhealthy for the party. Parties, thus, have to balance their party internally too. The contemporary theory tends also to see political parties as reflections of social cleavages.6

This trend exists in the parties in the advanced and industrial societies . In these countries the candidate, some feel, overshadows the party. The candidates feel that with the help of the media they can get their message across, ignoring the political party. This idea does not have many buyers. The lack of faith in the party system is a temporary phenomenon because the institutions of democracy by and large, fall within this area of mistrust. Surveys have indicated that people depend more on religious bodies’, presidents, defence forces, Judiciary, Parliaments than on political parties. The crisis is because people have faith in democracy but not on some of the agents of democracy. One of the agents- political parties has lately failed to deliver. One reason is that there is no internal democracy within parties. Decisions are reached at by a coterie of the top rung leaders. Their actions are not transparent and the leaders are not accessible. Party workers themselves cannot answer queries of their supporters as to how decisions are taken. Parties have failed to mediate and act as a crucial link between the civil society and the leadership. In societies which boast of being diverse and which are further becoming plural , political parties are not being able to find common ground. They have to find compromise among different interests. In this day and age they have to unite the people, keeping the heterogeneity alive. Political parties have to create a common identity while making the diverse groups secure in their comfort zone. This is a very difficult but essential role of the political parties in the advanced countries which opened its doors to people from under-developing and developing countries. In the advanced countries, it becomes the task of the political parties to assimilate the interests of these diverse groups which are in a considerable number. The challenge is all the more intimidating because the interests of these groups hailing from different States are as different from each other as chalk and cheese. These groups differ from each other and from the interests of the State which they have decided to make their home. Thus, political parties in advanced, industrial societies have to walk over a tight rope, laced with fresh challenges every day. Parties have to organize these differences of interests, ideologies and policies.

The Founding Fathers of the American constitution disliked political parties. George Washington, the First President of United States of America, (henceforth U.S.) warned the people about the baneful effects of the political parties calling them the worst enemies of the concept of popular government. When the United States Constitution was signed in 1787, there were no political parties in the United States yet, the two-party system evolved with the passage of time. Today, all countries including the United States boast of political parties that are voter-based. The founding fathers of the Constitution of United States felt that political parties would lead to conflict and strife. But in the United States, political parties do reflect popular support. There are arguments that in the United States the working of the Political Action Committees (PAC’s) has led to the decline in the functioning of the political parties. It is also said that in America, the political environment focuses more on candidates and issues leading to political parties becoming redundant. But, this is not the whole truth. Political parties represent the people, the masses and are still a tool of political socialization and mobilization. A political party helps the voter to address issues in particular. In the United Kingdom (henceforth UK) also the parties play a major role at local, national and European levels. They also aim to develop ideologies and then take positions. They endeavour to impart political education to the voters- passive citizens as well as to the party members.

Even the United Kingdom Parliamentary system is organised on party lines. The Members of Parliament (henceforth MP’s) try to fulfill the interests of their constituents irrespective of the fact that some voters would have voted for some other candidate. But once in power the political party has to fulfill everybody’s interests. They set the ball rolling when it comes to fulfilling the interests of all sections of the society. Thus, political parties operationalise the liberal democratic process. The organization of UK Parliamentary system gives stability to the political system but at the same time, the Executive dominates over the Legislature. The Labour Party, in UK aims to get the support of the working class. They recruited members from these classes while the Conservatives used to, traditionally, get the support of the business and the middle classes . But to come to power, both the parties realized that they needed to change their positions. So, the Conservative Party developed the One Nation ideology, while the Labour Party has started adopting moderate, social, democratic ideology to win over the middle class without alienating its support from the labour groups. Thus, political parties tend to assimilate voters by adapting to new changes and dynamics in the society.

Role of Political Parties

Political Parties Operationalise democracies: It is only a few traditional societies where we do not have any party system. Political parties are a must for a democracy to function effectively. When two or more political parties compete for power, issues are focused upon. The healthy debates, discussions, promises, through the election manifestoes, are life for a democracy. These are the pulse of a democracy. Even after the elections, when the majority party becomes the ruling party, the opposition keeps the former on its toes. All the parties are answerable to the people. The elections in the near future are kept in mind and political parties rake up issues to win popular support. Political parties act as a link between the government and the citizens. They not only transmit ideas but also shape and mould the thoughts of the citizens. They convert popular priorities into policies and then finally into laws. They convey the interests of the people or a section of the society to the government so that it can address their grievances at the earliest.

Thus, they present the political choices in a simple way. And what better way can we have in a democracy than organized, fair and free elections. Political parties nominate candidates, the leaders of a particular party agree on an agenda and then they set out to attract various groups. They try to win over popular support. In this way they bring together people, across the spectrum, who have similar views. All the people supporting a political party may not share all the views, but yes, agreement on core beliefs is there which binds them together. The parties propagate and promote these broad set of beliefs. Parties are a platform where extreme viewpoints are to;ned down to seek a balance which is moderate and acceptable to the majority. Only if the moderate views are maintained can the political parties attract more voters. So, the political parties keep the voter abreast about the latest happenings. They help the voters form an opinion. The government drums up support by informing the parties about the various policies it plans to take up while the opposition parties closely monitors the government keeping the latter alert to any misgovernance. The ‘Shadow Cabinet’ formed by the opposition party in the United Kingdom is an excellent example of the opposition keeping a very close watch on the government. It is made up of members of Parliament from the second largest party or official opposition party. The Opposition Party appoints an MP to ‘shadow’ each of the members of the Cabinet. By doing so, the opposition makes sure that it looks at every part of the government thoroughly. By being a part of the ‘Shadow Cabinet’ the Member of Parliament also gets trained to do specific jobs if the opposition comes to power in the next elections. It is known as official loyal opposition or, ‘Her Majesty’s Opposition.’ The Opposition party , in the UK, has a serious responsibility which places it also in the public’s scrutiny.

Elections mean chaos, especially for the voter who is bombarded with choices. Voters have to choose between performance of the parties/candidates, various issues that can be national/international, credibility of both the ruling party as well the opposition parties and any sensitive issue that can touch the people in their day to day lives-inflation, unemployment, standard of living etc. The political parties simplify this for the voter by informing them through brochures, door-to-door campaigns (remember, we are talking about advanced countries, where population is less) media and meetings in which issues are debated and discussed. They give direction to the expectations of the people.

They also help manifest the voice of the people. They accommodate the participation of the people and also form public opinion by acting as a link between the citizen and the government. They do the work of interest aggregation. There are so many demands by various sections of the Society. Interests have to be aggregated and put forward in an organized manner. Political parties perform this role of interest aggregation and interest articulation. They aggregate interests and then articulate them to the authorities. Interest aggregation is a tough job because there are various groups in the society and each has as many aspirations as its members. Managing and arriving at a consensus is the biggest challenge that the political parties have to perform.

Political Parties try to give direction to the political System : Political parties strive for gaining influence and power. For this they are ready to act, confront and achieve. The political parties compete among themselves, trying to keep this competition healthy so as not to disappoint their voters for the majority of the voters has moderate views. A political party that survives this process emerges successfully. For this, they try to garner the support of various pressure and interest groups. The aim is to gain political power and for this, maximum support is needed. Unlike the pressure and interest groups, political parties must have an opinion on all issues. The former have the luxury of protecting one interest at a time. Every society is made up of heterogeneous interests. The interests have to be accommodated and this is only possible when these interests are properly articulated and aggregated. Political parties take up this role and promote open competition. The pluralistic societies of today are rich storehouses of language, culture, views, all diverse yet essential to a plural society. Democracy thrives in a plural society, where the majority as well as the minorities co-exists peacefully. Political parties ensure this peaceful co-existence. They manage the conflicting interests and avoid extremes. The political parties, then, choose to represent particular interests. This is one step in opinion- making or moulding of the voters.

Political parties are an important agent of political socialisation. Besides, educating the voter they nurture politicians of the future. They identify people/ citizens who are interested in participation in the political system. Many a times they have to coax those who have the potential but are indifferent to politics. The political parties, then, select candidates and train them. They recruit people for the political system and thus, maintain  continuity in the leadership. They encourage people to participate in the political system. Political parties help to develop political programmes and policies. When the citizens participate in the working of the political party they also exert some influence on the decision-making process. The various political parties offer different alternatives to the voters. These alternatives are the programmes of the parties and are usually in the form of an election manifesto. After the elections, when the majority party emerges, it forms the government. Its work is to convert policies into laws, while resolving the various conflicts. The party in power has to fulfill its promises alongwith solving problems that keep cropping up. The party in power has to work consistently because it is constantly being evaluated by the citizens. The opposition parties criticise the government and thus, control it. But at the same time, it is also being scrutinized by the citizens. So, it has to play its role carefully. It has to be responsible by doing ‘constructive criticism’ and not only ‘destructive criticism’. In this way, irrespective of the party in power or in opposition, both the parties have to deliver. If they fail to do so, their credibility and reputation can be questioned by their very supporters.

Political parties can support the political system in which they breathe or can be against the political system. The latter can pursue an aggressive agenda for they want to topple one system and establish another. In such cases, they divide the societies. Such societies are, then, unstable and in a constant state of flux.Societies, today, are ever-changing in terms of composition, ideology and expectations of the people. Political parties are also agents of economic change. In modern democracies, challenges are arising everyday. Political parties are always criticised for not fulfilling expectations. They, sometimes, help in changing the society and at other times herald in some change themselves. This is done by making policies adapting to the changes and often by making these changes acceptable to the people.

Voters today are, sometimes, reluctant to vote. They would have lost faith in the political systems and might feel that one vote would not make a difference. The political parties mobilize this section of people not only to express their wishes but also to participate in the political system by persuading them to vote. The voters have to be convinced to come out and elect their candidates. This is a tough job as the voter who has either no interest or faith in the political system has to be persuaded to participate.

The political parties while managing the internal dynamics of their parties do this also. Political parties do this by trying to have as many members as possible. Then some members may decide to be passive while others may get involved in the working of the party. Still others would be mobilised to such an extent that they might decide to run for office themselves. The political party has to see whether any ‘wannabe’ candidate really has the potential. Once identified, the candidate is trained in various skills needed to survive in the political system. The skills imparted by the political party to the candidates are that of oratory, policy-making, management (both events and human), handling the media (print as well as electronic) and to identify and put together a winning team. Sometimes, the political party even organizes a team for the candidates. Thus, political parties represent individuals as well as groups.

The role of Political Parties in Elections: Managing election campaign and emerging victorious in the elections becomes very crucial. Policies can be implemented; interests can be fulfilled of the supporters only when the party comes to power. Once in power the task is to facilitate governance. The party has to find like-minded allies to get policies passed. A network of politicians in the legislature is formed that helps in positive laws being framed. Various political parties have to identify which are the non-partisan issues and then work on them together. If laws are not churned out then the level of frustration of people would grow leading to dissatisfaction and frustration. The political parties remember this and tell it to their prospective candidates as well as the politicians in the legislature and the executive. Then the process of law- making is accelerated.

The party in power has to keep a check on the opposition party and also try to take it along in policy formation. So, political parties also act as bonding agents. They disseminate information to the populace. The healthy debates and discussions are augmented by the parties. Parties are also known as the extra-parliamentary wing of the party. They have to organize themselves internally. The party machine has to be organized. Only when the party is internally strong and organized can it win in an election. Party meetings, pre-selection of candidates is all done within parties. Any strife between groups and individuals within a party has to be settled internally and a united front put up in front of the opposition. Otherwise, the latter can take advantage of this internal strife. Thus, the party machinery has to be well-organised and also has to be strife-free. Debates can take place but not mud-slinging.

Elections mean a lot of expenditure. Finances have to be collected. This role is also performed by various political parties. They fund election campaigns of candidates. For this, they have to be in contact with industrial houses, various groups that can finance the election campaigns. At times, they have to be deft in handling financial matters. If they cannot get finance for space in the newspapers or in the electronic media to air their thoughts then the parties lose in touch with the public. This is another example of managing funds and also a way to connect to the voters.

Conclusion

Political parties are a part of the modernization process. They are involved in resolving social conflicts. For this, rationale and logic has to be explained to the people who have conflicting interests. As Philippe C. Schmitter says political parties are one of the intermediaries in the consolidation of neo-democracies besides social movements and interest groups. In this process of social conflicts and their resolution, the political parties mobilize the people. Thus, political parties help in political mobilization, political socialization and political recruitment. They initiate political participation and then represent the people in the corridors of power. For this, they have to indulge in political marketing. Information has to be given to the electorate but in this age of technology, facts have to be manipulated, information has to be moulded in a manner that it benefits the political parties. Political parties do this work of not only passing information but also creating information. For this, they have to rope in experts, who have the ability to play with words. Information has to be cut moulded and then pasted, so that a favourable public opinion is formed. In the current times, when direct relation between the candidates and the electorate is on the rise, there are critics who are predicting the doom of political parties. But the majority feels that healthy, free competition and existence of political parties is a necessity of any modern-day democracy. Political parties pave way for establishing a legitimate regime based on the will of the majority of the people. Elections are inherent to a democracy and free and fair elections cannot take place without the active participation of the political parties, which help in mobilizing the people to participate and vote. The political parties also help the people in focusing on issues that would have hitherto gone unnoticed. Thus, political parties perform various functions and their role is of utmost importance in any democratic society.

Suggested Readings

1. Hartman, Horst, Political Parties in India, Meerut, Meenakshi, 1980.
2. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties, London, Methuen, 1954.
3. __________, Their Organisation and Activity in the Modern State, New York, Wiley, 1963.
4. Michels, Robert, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchial Tendencies in Modern Democracy, New York,1959.
5. Kirchheimer, Otto, ‘The Transformation of the Western European Party Systems,’ in La Palombara , Joseph and Myron Weiner (eds.), Political Parties and Their Political Development, Princeton, Princeton University Press.

6. Neumann, Sigmund, Modern Political Parties, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1956.
7. McKenzie, Robert, British Political Parties (second edition), London:Heineman, 1963.