11 New Social Movements in Developed Societies

Shashi K. Negi

NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (NSMs): WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DEVELOPED SOCIETIES

1  Objectives

2  Introduction

3  Reasons for the emergence of NSMs

4  Some important ant definitions of social movements

5  Nature/Features of Social Movements

5.1 Social movements and political movements

5.2 Constitutional and Extra Constitutional Nature of Social Movements

5.3  What Social Movement needs to become successful

5.4 Principal Components of Social movements

5.6 Classifications of Social movements

6    New Social Movements: What is New in NSM’s? 6.1 Introduction

6.2 Basic features of New Social Movements

6.2.1 Basic Features of NSM’s according to Johnston, Larana, and Gusfield

6.2.2 New Social Movements and a New Base for its Development

6.2.4    Rise of New Politics with Adoption of New Means and Methods in NSMs

6.2.4 New Roles in New Social Movements

6.2.5  Nature of NSM’s have been underwent to change with the Passage of Time

6.2.6    New Social Movements are different from Pressure Groups and Political Parties

7  Differences between Old Social Movements and New Social Movements 8 Critical Appreciation: Limitations of New Social Movements

8.1 A.G Franks critical viewpoint towards New Social Movement Theory

9 Summing up

1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this module, students should be able to:

Ø   Understand the meaning and basic features of Social Movements

Ø   Describe the nature of Social Movements in the context of developed societies

Ø   Explain what is new in New Social Movements Explain Meaning and Features of New Social Movements Changing nature of New Social Movements

Ø  Make a distinction between Old Social Movements and New Social Movements.

Ø   Critically evaluate the concept of New Social Movements

2    INTRODUCTION

Social movements are universal in nature. The nature, scope and frequency of various social movements vary from each other. Social movements shape the state and its functions, responsibilities as well as accountability and also its political boundary. In the contemporary times social movements are seen in all the states. They make and unmake the nature of regimes, political institutions and norms of social and political behaviour. Socio-economic and political conflicts and expectations of the people are reflected through the movements. The term ‘social movement’ is often used very loosely to correspond different meanings. Some social scientist used this term to represent the historical changes like modernization or urbanization. Others used this term to signify a set of activities undertaken by one or many organisations to bring ‘change’ in society. It is also used for collective action of a segment of society. Sometimes political leaders and social activists use the concept of social movement to conceal their political activities.

Social movements are of recent origin in England and USA. The term social movements came in to circulation in the late 18th and early 19th century when western society was involved in social, political and economic upheavals. During the enlightenment period church and authority the absolute power of the monarchs were challenged by discontented individuals. People started demanding democratic rights and asking for liberty and equality. The origin of social movements shows a close link between democratization and social movements. German sociologist Lorenz Von Stein used this term in his work “History of the French Social Movement: From 1889 to 1850”. According to him social movements are dynamic forces in society, which emerged against “State”. It was a societal process to show/express their opinion towards functioning of state.

Early e.g. of social movements: The British Movement to abolish slavery and movement to extend franchise rights in UK and USA, French Revolution in 1789, labour and other communist movements which originated with the industrial revolution.

There is no one definition of ‘social movement.’ Scholars and social activists have different ideological positions on political system and expected social change/movement. But one thing is certain among all conceptualization of social movement i.e. collective action. It is about the mobilization of the people for political, social and economic action. However, collective action as such is not one and the same of social movement. Action of a mob in streets is though a collective behaviour, it cannot be called a social movement. For instance when a mob at the railway station stops a train for misbehavior of railway staff or prefer to travel without ticket cannot be called social movement. Nor riots between two ethnic groups or act of looting food grains from shops or destruction of public property can be called so. These acts by themselves are not social movements. They may be a part – one of the programmes of the social movement. We do not call these collective behaviour as social movements because they are often impulsive and do not aim at bringing social change. They are reaction to a particular situation. However, when they are engineered as a programme of the larger agenda for social change challenging or even perpetuating power of a particular group for status quo then rioting may become a part of the social movement. For instance those who desire to establish dominance of a community engineer riots to create insecurity and thereby ‘community consciousness’ against other community. In such a case riot is not an impulsive isolated phenomenon. Or in several cases social movements emerge from riots as they breed political activities to sustain emotion of the people. Collective action for bringing ‘social change’ is an important dimension of definition of social movements. Of course the collective action for maintaining or not disturbing social change as perceived by others is also social movement. Such collective action for status quo may be called counter–movement. Moreover, there is no one meaning of social change. This is evident from the following sample definitions of social movements used in social science literature.

3 Factors which led to the emergence of Social movements are:

Consolidation of industrialization and urbanization Process of democratization and spread of educationTechnology and increased communication Awareness for the reforms in various sphere of life Emergence of free press/ free trade unions and other groups.

4   Some Important Definitions and Basic Features of Social Movement

Before going any further, it is important clarify what is meant by the term “social movement”.

As in case of social movements we can found competing and not compatible definitions. One of the reasons for the lack of strong consensus is that because different authors are using different approaches to study it with different goals and assumptions.

According to some of the thinkers (Oberschall, 1973 and Tilly 1985) the collective Behaviour / social movement is:

It portrays movement emerged as a reflex response to ‘grievances, structural strain, deprivations and other such kind of hardship. The stereotypical collective behaviour theorist believes that objective hardship is both a necessary and sufficient cause of protest and movement formation.

Portrays the protests and movements triggered by these hardships as irrational psychological responses, manifestation of Mob psychology or collective hysteria;

Portrays those who become involved in these mobs as isolated individuals who are often not very well integrated into society

Lumps social movements together with other assorted forms of ‘collective behaviour’, such as fashions, crazes and panics without any due considerations for their distinctiveness and properly ‘political’ nature.

Social movements as suggested by famous social scientist are ‘forms of Collective Action” that

emerges in responses to situation inequality, injustice, oppression or unmet social, political, economic and cultural demands. In any social movement a group of people involved in a conflict with clearly identified opponents sharing a common identity, a common programme and acting collectively.

Social Some Important Definitions

“A social movement is organized collective behaviour of a class actor struggling against its class adversary for the social control of it’s historicity” (Touraine, 1981,77)

“Social movements are forms of collective action that emerge in response to situations of inequality, oppression and unmet social, political, Economic or cultural demands. They compris an organized set of constituents pursuing a common political agenda of change over time.” (Batliwala 2012:3)

    “Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprise seeking to establish a new order of life. They have their inception in a condition of unrest and derive their motive power on one hand from dissatisfaction with current form of life, and on other hand from wishes and hopes for a new system of living. The career of a social movement depicts the emergence of a new order or system of life”. (Blumer 1969: 99)

“Social  movements  are…….best  conceived  of  as  temporary  public  spaces,  as  moments  of

collective creation that provide societies with ideas, identities, and even ideals”. (Eyerman and Jamison, 1991: 4)

“Continuous politics occurs when ordinary people , often league with more influential citizens join forces in confrontation with elites, authorities and opponents… when backed by dense social networks and galvanized by culturally resonant, action oriented symbols, contentious politics leads to sustained interaction with opponents . Collective challenges, based on common purposes and social solidarities in sustained interaction with elites, opponents and authorities”.(Tarrow , 1998:2)

All the above given definitions reflect that social movements are mainly considered as group action. They are focused on some specific social and political issues, sometimes informal and large groupings of individuals or organizations. Social movements sometimes carry forward and sometimes resist a social change. Modern Western social movements became possible through education, and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies.

5 What is social Movement: Basic Features of Social Movement

Focusing on the various above given definitions of social movements and its differentiation from the pressure groups and political parties, one can see that concept of social movement includes some important components

1)      A group of people with a conflictual orientation towards an opponent (e.g. opponent – State, political institutions)

2)      A collective identity/set of common beliefs and goals

3)      Collective actions

4)      It is directed towards social change

 5)      Existence of common purpose

From the above given details one can clearly draw that agitation or protests are not social movements. Because, they more often than not, do not aim at bringing social change. They do not conceive that. They are reaction to a particular situation. But at the same time, more often than not, a social movement develops in course of time, and it begins with protest or agitation which may not have conceived the notion of political change.

Moreover, a particular collective action may be only an agitation for some scholars, and a movement for others, depending upon the level of analysis and the perspective. Examples of Social movements showing that social movements are quite diverse, progressive/peaceful as well as reactionary and aggressive, social moments can be local, national and global.

The Civil Right movements of 1955- 1965 in the United States.

The 1989 student led democratic movement in China which symbolized the massive protest and demonstration in Beijing.

In 2003 anti war movement in the USA and other Countries protesting the Bush administrations attack against Iraq.

Ecological and environmental movement concerned with limiting and reversing environmental degradation both at the local, national and international level.

The “anti-globalization movement: an extraordinary movement designed to challenge neoliberal reforms.

The neo- Nazi or white power movement in the United States and Europe.

These examples make it clear that social movements are not inherently “progressive” and peaceful but instead can be profoundly reactionary and aggressive (as in the case of Neo-Nazi movement). Some social movements are essentially local, whereas others have morphed into broad based transnational and global movements. Finally some movements have been extremely successful whereas others have achieved very transitory or little success in “influencing” the political or social change.

5.1 Social Movements and Political Movements

According to Andre Gunder Frank and Marta Fuentes (1987) there is a distinction between social and political movements. According to them, the social movement does not strive for state power. Social movements ‘seek more autonomy rather than state power. According to these authors, the objective of social movement is social transformation. The participants get mobilized for attaining social justice. But one cannot completely distinguish between the social and political movement. As the movements involving social issues concerning the sense of justice or injustice have political implications. Any collective struggle or effort aiming at bringing social transformation questions prevailing hegemony and dominance, power relations, allocation of resources and resisting dominance involves influencing political authority which is indirect. Therefore, in the present context, the difference between social’ and ‘political’ movement is merely semantic.

5.2 Constitutional and Extra Constitutional Nature of Social Movements

Social movements follow ‘institutional’ (constitutional) as well as non-institutional (extra-constitutional or illegal) path. Extra–constitutional/non-institutional path is also called ‘direct action’ against the state or government. The action which is legally permitted and ‘widely accepted as binding in society or part of society at a given point of time is institutionalized action. Such actions include petitioning, voting in elections, and fighting legal battles in courts of law. They themselves are not called as social movements as they are part of institutional mechanism and functioning. But when these methods are accompanied by other collective actions and are used as tactics they become a part of the movements. Direct action can be defined as an extra constitutional political technique that takes the form of a group action, is aimed at some political change directed against the government in power. A line between constitutional and extra-constitutional is very thin and very complicated. It depends on the interpretation of laws and constitution. Political authority/ dominating group which support the existing order can interpret a particular action as illegal; but those who strive for social change may interpret the same action as legal. For many, violent means used by supporters of extra constitutional viewpoint, is illegal therefore not permitted. Non-institutionalized collective action takes several forms, such as, protest, agitation, strike, Satyagraha, gerao, riot, etc.

5.4 What Social Movement Needs to Become Successful

While studying this concept various question raises in our minds like why do some of the social movements but not others results in successful political or social outcomes and what a social movement need to become successful? Before answering this question we need to know what a successful social movement is. Social movements are considered successful when they are acceptance by “challenging group” by its antagonist as a valid spokesman for a legitimate set of interest and able to gain the new advantage by the group’s beneficiaries during the challenge and its aftermath. Several key factors have been identified by rationalist thinkers to explain what makes social movements successful. Most important of which are:

Most important is a capable, strategically oriented leadership. An organizational structure of a social movement organisation. Successful social movement also requires an active membership Successful social movements require achievable goals There are some other elements also but these four are key elements of successful social movement.

5.4 Principal Components of Successful Social Movements

Social scientist considers that social movement of any nature and social movement on any issue consists of five principal components. These components are objectives, programmes, ideology, leadership and organisation. They are interdependent and influence each other. As we have seen earlier that all the emotional group activity or collective effort of people in the form of crowd (i.e. riots) is not a part social movement. Social movement is always aimed to bring social and political change. It has always an immediate and long term objective.

For the long term objective social movement gives priorities to certain programmes over others, and also focuses on a particular direction, mobilizes certain groups. The path of action involves a set of ideas, propositions and values that enable to perceive social reality one particular manner. These set of ideas and ideals form ideology for the collective action of a group. The ideology is not necessarily prepared and nor always preconceived. In some cases ideology directs the movement and in other cases ideology gets evolved during the period of movement.

Social movement also requires some kind of organisation. The organisation may be loose or it can be well organized. Organisation can adopt centralized or decentralized decision-making system for preparing programmes.

Leadership which is the last important part of social movement plays significant role in expression of ideology and to prepare strategies for action. Social movement involves mobilization of people which is mainly done by the leaders. Leaders come up with different programmes to sustain the participation of people.

Neither of these components is static in nature or cannot arrange in chronological order. The nature and function of these components vary from movement to movement.

In some movements they are found in basic form whereas in others they are comparatively well developed. Some of the components (leadership, organisation and also ideology) do get changed in the course of the movement. In some cases, even the objectives change and move in different direction than the earlier ones.

5.5 Types of Social Movements

Social movements can be of various types like: Reformative, Radical, Rigid, Traditional, group-based, individual-based movements. Reformative movements concentrate on legal, constitutional, electoral and panel reforms (e.g. British Fabian Society). This kind of movement normally uses peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their goals, coupled with mass campaign to garner popular support for their cause. While contradictory to this radical movement try to bring about fundamental changes within a limited period. For example the Japanese Meiji restoration movement changed Japan from traditional agrarian to modern industrial society with two generation.

5.6 Classification of Social Movements

Social movements have been classified in to two categories on the basis on time period, participation, issues, methods, means adopted by the groups. These two categories are named as old social movements and new social movements. Old social movement is also called classical movements. Old social movements primarily focus on the state/political authority, the class consciousness of the participants and issues taken up in those movements. Peasant or working class movement against the existing economic structure and movements for some of the political rights fall in this category. As against this, some of the new movements such as peace movement, ecological movement, women’s movement occurred after the 1960s in Europe are called ‘new’ social movement. These are called ‘new’ as they have raised the issues related to identity and autonomy and were not based on class issues of existing economic structure. However, it is not right to say that in the past people did not rise and struggled for identity and autonomy as there are some movements before 1960 which were for the autonomy and identity. There is a very thin line between the old and the new concept of social movements which we are going to discuss in the next part of this paper.

6 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: PERSPECTIVE ON CONTEMPORARY MOVEMENTS

Introduction

New Social movements are both a major phenomenon of recent western history and an important topic with in contemporary social and political studies. New social movements are highly participative and have strong programme of actions. According to Lipset “The long economic boom and social democratic consensus after World War-II correspond to a period of political stability and even apathy marked by academic pronunciation of the ‘end of ideology” (Lipset, 1960: 403-17). After the Second World War there was celebration for the stability of western societies as the permanent achievement of an open political system which functioned as a political market mediating the conflicting demands of organized political interest. The conflict between capital and labour was tamed by the class compromising structures of the welfare state with its progressive taxation, social security and welfare provision policies of full employment, and neo corporatist consultation between employers, trade unions and government (Offe, 1984). But this liberal democratic stability did not lust for long and the cracks were felt in the 1950’s. After 1950’s large numbers of changes have been occurred in international system which led to the rise of new social attempts and efforts. There was a larger demand from the citizens for equal distribution of power, social equality and peace. However, many of the states failed to meet the demands of the citizen. New social movements emerge around new level and array of politics. The term New Social Movement refers to a group of contemporary social movements that have played a significant and largely progressive role in western societies from late 1960’s. The identification of these waves of activism as new typically refers to their concern with issue other than class. The category normally includes peace and anti nuclear movements, lesbian and gay liberation, second wave feminism antiracist and alternative life style movement.

New Social Movements are the product of the post industrial society and significantly different from the conventional social movement paradigm. The focus of the new social movement is on the human rights. Therefore, social scientist has related these movements with the post materialism hypothesis and New Class Model.

In the 1950’s in USA Black Civil Rights Movements have been taken place which spoke for outcasts and outsiders, who were not only excluded from the material benefits of the affluent society but also from the civil and democratic rights. During 1960’s further crakes were appeared. Protest against the USA’s war in Vietnam was products and catalyst of emerging student radicalism, giving rise to organisations like students for a Democratic society at Berkeley. Student radicalism was itself inseparable from a more diffuse counterculture of sex, drugs and rock and roll. Students and hippies chose to drop out rejecting their parents’ commitments to work and consumerism.

The diverse strands of dissent and activism reached their public and symbolic apogee in the ‘May Events’ of Paris in 1968, when a combination of students and workers seemed on the point of toppling the French state. These revolutions were averted soon but it shattered the concept of stable democracies. It is the aftermath of of the ‘Paris Events’ that the origin of the new social movement has been located in the studies of social science. The 1969 riots at the Stonewall Bar in New York were the spark for the formation of the Gay Liberation Front, the vanguard of the contemporary gay and lesbian movements. Anti war movement, second wave feminism flourished from the beginning of the 1970’s. In the former West Germany, the extra parliamentary opposition was overtaken by a proliferation of large and small scale protests against nuclear power stations and military bases and other citizen’s initiatives. The “Arab springs” is another classical example of new social movements which uses modern technologies. The term Arab springs is used to denote the popular uprisings in Middle East since 2011. For forty years or more the pace of change in the Middle East has been very slow. Throughout the years there were unexposed desire for democratic reforms and freedoms in the region. The key figures associated with this notion of NSM’s are Alain Touraine (1981), Jurgen Habermas (1981, 1987), Offe (1985) and Alberto Melucci (1985, 1996).

6.2. Basic Features of New Social Movements: What is New in NSMs

The subject of new social movements included very unusual issues and concepts like: environment, the achievement of peace and disarmament, the human rights, role of women, health, food and nutrition, the dispensation of justice, education, culture and lifestyle, shelter and housing, communications and the dissemination of information which were considered to be subject matter for politics in which ordinary people were involved. NSMs have given more preference to the productive resources over conflicts that were earlier neglected and peripheral to the concerns of political organizations. Traditional class struggle revolved around the field and the factory but the contemporary struggle of groups started focusing on ecology and natural resources and represents a new kind of class struggle.

6.2.1 Eight Basic Features of New Social Movements (Johnston, Larana, and Gusfield,

1994, pp 6-9 )

The New Movements of the 1970’s displayed a number of seemingly novel characteristics and displayed certain characteristics to a novel degree. In the contrast to the ‘old politics’ dominated by class and distributional issues, new social movements address new issues and deals differently. What separates “new” social movements from earlier movements according to Johnston, Larana, and Gusfield (1994, PP.6-9) can be understood through the eight basic features:

NSMs are not generally class based; instead the structural roots of these movements tend to be based on diffuse social status, such as gender, sexual orientation or profession.

NSMs are characterized by a Pluralism of ideas and values rather than a clear cut ideological position.

NSM’s often involve the emergence of new or formerly weak dimensions of identity, often ethically or historically based.

In NSMs the distinction between the collective and individual is blurred

NSMs are concerned with a range of ostensibly noneconomic issues: sexual behaviour, LGBT rights, abortion, alternative medicine, opposition to smoking and so on.

NSMs tend to use “radical” mobilization strategies of disruption and resistance

NSMs reflect, to some degree, skepticism towards conventional channels for democratic participation.

NSM’s tend to be segmented  and decentralized (For details see Larana, Enrique Hank Johnston and Joseph R. Gusfield .1994. New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity Temple University Press, pp.1- 368)

6.2.2 New Social Movements and a New Base for its Development

The agents of transformation are different in the new social movements. The old movements were spearheaded by employers, workers and middle class traders. But the ‘new Politics’ gather their most important support from the “New Middle Class” which includes post world war II younger generation, groups who have a more formal education, unemployed, housewives and deprived groups . New social movements have new and widened base and active participation of members. The large membership and increasing force of NSMs is the reflection of people’s discontent and aggravation with state and other traditional political institutions. This also reflects the search for alternatives to the political process, political parties and the state. These popular new social movements have some middle-class leadership of middleclass intelligentsia, professionals, teachers, priests, etc. who offer their services as leaders, organizers or advisers to these community and other social movements. In the process of initiating, organizing and directing the people’ movements, these outside intellectuals become an organic part of the oppressed and exploited masses and do not exist outside the common people.

6.2.3    Rise of New Politics with Adoption of New Means and Methods in NSM’s

New social movements practice new politics by using new means and methods to show dissatisfaction. The new movements have evolved an effective methodology of working with the disadvantaged sections of society which in turn has helped them to grow as an alternative agency of social change. New politics practice new innovative and theatrical forms of protest politics, moving away from established parties, interest groups and representative process. This is a methodology of critical intervention, creative action and participatory mobilization. In new social movements groups have devised a strategy of creative action, which comprises of theatre workshops and street plays among other things. Theatre workshop and street plays serve as an important medium not only for mobilizing clients but also for sensitizing the participants to the problems at hand.

From 1990’s onwards social movement groups have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals. It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed, reach and effectiveness of social movement-related communication as well as mobilization efforts. NSM’s establishes horizontal organizational structure of participation. In contrast to the centralist and bureaucratic electoral and revolutionary organisations of the old left, new form of political practice and collective actions were also in evidence. Alongside more conventional organisations, there was a flourishing of more fluid, participatory and even anarchist groups. These new social movements do not believe in a rigid hierarchy. Their organizational structure is horizontal in nature. Organizational structures of NSMs stresses on decentralization and participatory decision making. As these organizations do not have a rigid hierarchy, the concept of the leader and the led does not exist. The prominent members of these organizations prefer to call themselves organizers and not leaders .They represent a rejection of the unified, disciplined and militarized party machine, oriented toward seizure of the state and enforcement of a single ideological line.

6.2.4    New Roles in New Social Movements

The new social movements and experiments manifest the true nature of contemporary world crisis and prepare for a future desirable society. The role of these people’s movements and Experiments transcend not only state power, but also the new existing civil societies. They work to transform the state itself to become more humane and responsive to the sufferings. The moral vision of the new movements is significant. By highlighting the question of ecology, health, gender etc., which were earlier considered as peripheral, the new movements have a valuable role to play in enlarging the scope of lower class movements. The new social movements in the Third World show a rare sensitivity to the heterogeneity of the sources and structures of exploitation and oppression. The new social movements can be seen as vehicles of cumulative change in the social, economic and political fields. They are able to generate a new kind of consciousness among the socially deprived about the unjust arrangements in which they are placed and new social sensitivity to dismantle such arrangements. In the economic field these movements initiate alternative development strategies and are able to involve the poor and the dispossessed in self-reliant development project.

6.2.5 Nature of NSM’s have been Underwent to Change with the Passage of Time

The modern social movement is not only a structural phenomenon. It is a complex network of actors and interactions. It has to follow a three step strategy. The three steps are; 1, Diagnosis 2, Prognosis 3, Motivation. The actors, who organize a social movement, have to make clear their aims. They have to put into words what is wrong in society. This is termed as diagnosis. They have to identify the current issues and how to make it a public issue. The second stage is prognosis. Here the enquiry is how to rectify the wrongs in society. The next concern is what people have to do to bring the needed changes. This is called motivation. They do so in specific narratives or interpretive packages directed at authorities, movement participants, supporters, and at the public at large. Social movement actors give meaning to events, situations, and social practices; they function as signifying agents alongside other actors like media and government agencies. These social movements sought to alter the prevailing structures of power, project values of justice, equality and freedom adding new dimensions to them and marked the rise of a new social force. The new social movements (NSMs) are largely ‘grassroots’ and apolitical movements whose main objective is social transformation rather than state power. This is a process of depoliticization of the social realm. However the new social movements are not only social but can have varied dimensions like political and economic and that it may not necessarily be grassroots but can include various other sections too.

6.2.6   New Social Movements are different from Pressure Groups and Political Parties

Social movement groups are different from the political parties and pressure groups. As suggested by Mukherjee, and Ramaswamy in their work although some of the social movements led to the formation of political parties but there is difference in the nature, organisation and functions of both the organisations.

Political parties follow the hierarchical organizational structure with few people taking most of the important decisions following the principles of “iron law of oligarchy”. In a social movement organisation is loose and decentralized with considerable popular participation.

Political parties usually have more rigid membership while social movements are more open and relaxed.

A political party deals with large number of domestic and political issues, some of which even appear contradictory. In case of social movements the focus is more limited and cohesive

The function of political parties revolves around providing alternative programmes and candidates and organizing elections. Social movements on the other hand may support or oppose particular candidates or parties during elections, but are not involved with the electoral  process.  In  a  weak  political  system,  social  movements  perform  the  vital function of reducing the alienation between the rulers and the ruled.

(For details see Mukherjee and Ramaswamy PP. 194-196)

Social movements are a form of extra parliamentary mass struggle to apply pressure on important policy shifts whereas interest groups employ clandestine tactics like lobbying decision makers .Pressure groups are an extension of invisible market activities whereas; social movements are in conflict with the market. Pressure groups try to bypass the democratic process as these represents the movement from the above, whereas social movements come from the below. And try to broaden the participatory base of democratic politics.

7   Difference between Old Social Movements and New Social Movements

The scholars who reject the framework of the classical or Marxist framework identify the following characteristics of the ‘new’ social movements which differentiate it from Old social movement.

Old social movement is a product of industrial society, whereas new social movement is product of post industrial society. Old social movement remained continued till 1950’s

but after the 2nd world war new social movements have been started in western societies. Emergence of post materialist generation in post war period led to transformation of OSMs (old social movement) to NSMs (new social movement). NSMs reject state as a tool to create social justice and ensure democratic accountability. NSMs do not seek control over state like OSMs. From the 1950’s in the USA black civil right movements spoke for outcasts and outsiders, who were not just excluded from the most of material benefits of the affluent?

       The old social movements originating in the late 18th or early 19th centuries were mainly addressed to an identifiable group, and were primarily concerned with economic issues, military issues and some political issues. Groups involved in the old social movements were identifiable. These groups included working class, peasantry and property owners. Each group tried to secure certain guarantees to ensure their economic security and advancement. The new social movements are not class–based. NSM include all the classes and it is multi-class in nature.

Old social movements and new social movements differ in social base. Working class was the major social base of OSM’s, but new social movements posses a different social class base known as “new class”. New class consist “threefold” structure as Claus Offe identified; the new middle class, elements of the old middle class, and peripheral groups outside the labor market. New class has high levels of education and more access to information and resources (e.g. students, housewives, and the unemployed also started participating in the collective actions).

NSMs do not subscribe to the Marxist theory that society is divided on class line and the classes are antagonistic. The new social movements are primarily ethnic, nationalist and plural. For example Gail Omvedt treats the farmers’ movement in modern times as ‘new’ and non-class movement. It is not only a movement of small and poor but it includes middle, rich farmers and agriculture labourers in the movement also. It also has support of high and low castes shopkeepers. According to Omvedt (1994) changed approach of the farmers’ movement in present time challenges the Marxist viewpoint which limited its analysis only to capital-labour struggles. This shows that agents or the source of transformation is completely different from OSM’s. Examples: Minimum wages, fixed working hours, prevention of child labours, movement against exploitation, rights for suffrage, the enclosure movement, 10 hour working day movement etc.

It is the post materialist concern that ignites new social movements and nor older concerns of distributive economics. There is some kind of newness in the new social movements. There has been a transformation from an old political framework determined by economic and social security to a new politics, whose primary concern is with the equal rights, quality of life, individual self realization, human rights etc. Habermas called this basic transformation a silent revolution. NSM’s unlike old ones do not revolve around economic issues of land, wages or property. They are primarily concerned with self- identity and autonomy of an individual and community against the state, market and social institutions. Therefore, LGBT movements, environmentalist movement, tribal movements for their autonomy and dalit movement for dignity are treated as part of NSMs. New social movements bring social mobilization through cultural innovations and the transformation of identities. New social movements represent the “new politics” which is about quality of life, individual self-realization, and human rights; whereas the old politics focused on economic, political, and military security.

The New Social Movements (NSMs) are not directing their collective action to state power. They are concerned with individual and collective morality. Andre Gunder Frank (2002) in his study find that NSM’s “share the force of morality and a sense of (in) justice in individual motivation, and the force of social mobilization in developing social power. Individual membership or participation and motivation in all sorts of social movements contain a strong moral component and defensive concern with justice in the social and world order.

New Social Movements are located in civil society or the cultural sphere as a major arena for  collective  action  rather  than  instrumental  action  in  the  state,  which  Claus  Offe characterizes this as ‘bypassing the state’. NSMs do not directly challenges the state and regarded as anti-authoritarian. The new social movements focus more on civil society rather than political authority. The expansion of the state, in the contemporary setting, coincides with the expansion of the market. State and market are seen as two institutions making inroads into all aspects of the citizen’s life. Under the combined impact of the forces of the state and the market, society grows helpless.  NSM’s raise the issue of the

‘self-defense’ of the community and society against the increasing expansion of the state apparatuses: agencies of surveillance and social control. (Singh , 2001)”.

According to the supporters of NSM’s these movements are not concerned for the benefit of one class or group. They are concerned for the good of the whole social community and ecosystem irrespective of class. For example the environmental movement does not raise the issue of a particular class this is for everyone.

NSM’s unlike OSM’s are considered as grassroots or micro movements and do not seek

to capture state powers. NSM,s are democratic in their organizational structure. According to Jean Cohen NSM’s raise issue which emerges from society rather than form state and economy. They are concerned with democratization in day to day life. They focus on communication and identity. According to Rajendra Singh “the aim of NSMs is to recognize the relations between state, society and the economy, and to create a public space in which democratic discourse on autonomy and freedom of the individual and collectivities, their identities and orientations could be discussed and examined. In its many expressions, the NSM’s generally confine themselves to social action with a spirit of what Cohen calls ‘self limiting radicalism’ (Singh , 2001)”.

New social movements seek emancipation and autonomy. They are not like the class struggles of yesteryears but are struggles for regional, linguistic, cultural and religious autonomy and independence.

NSM’s focus on a single issue and concentrate on the grassroots level with the aim to represent the interests of marginal or excluded groups. New social movements are locally based,  centered  on  small social  groups and  loosely  organized  by  personal  or informational networks (i.e. radios, newspapers, and posters). Earlier movements (OSM’s) were not locally based and single issue-centered.

New movements do not necessarily require a strong ideology or agreement to meet their objectives whereas, ideology like Marxism, socialism and liberalism played very important role in old social movements.

Their organizational structures stress decentralization and participatory decision making and they practice new politics namely innovative and theoretical forms of protest politics, moving away from established parties, interest groups and representative process

8   Critical Appreciation: Limitations of New Social Movement Theories

A study of NSM has a significance of its own. But a student of this subject faces some difficulties.

1.      One can see it very clearly that neither agents nor issues nor were forms of political practice and collective actions absolutely new. There is nothing new in these movements as they have existed in different forms since the industrial revolution. The word ‘new’ is quite confusing. Leaving aside the cases of some movements as those desiring ecological protection and universal peace, other movements do not deserve to be ranked in this category. For instance the feminist movements date back to the 1792 when Mary Wollstonecrft published ‘A vindication of the rights of women and Olympe De Gouges brought out her declaration of the rights of women. Arguments of a turning point are, therefore a myth. According to Eder (1990) the wish to protect nature from industrial civilization can be traced to William Blake and Romantic Movement. Similar kind of examples can be also found in the writings of various authors

•   The isolated feminist protest of Mary Wollstonecraft’s and Abigail Adams in the 19th century were followed by the more organized campaigning of anti slavery, temperance, more revival movements and suffragettes in the 19th and 20th centuries. ( Evans, 1977)
•  An energetic homosexual rights movement was founded in Germany by Magnus Hirschfeld in 1897 ( Steakley, 1993)
•  19th century anarchist and some early socialist already warned the dangers of state socialism ( Lichtheim, 1968)

     2.    Second problem with the New social movement theory according to David west is its unhelpful generalization of social movements. Social movement have been defined and represented as the single social choice or alternative which demote most of the social movement activity to the indecisive margin of politics. If the word “new’ is applied to

highlights the non ideological character of such movements cut across different sections of the society and as such neither they are leftist and nor they are rightist in character. But to take them merely as struggle for autonomy, identity, and recognition cannot be taken for granted.

3.   Much information about the substantive characteristics (the emergence, structures, strategies, tactics, political opportunities, agents, goals, successes and failures etc.) of new social movement have been gathered by social scientist but purely descriptive and empirical theories cannot

provide theoretical guidance for the political practice of NSM’s.

4.    There is no empirical evidence or data to vindicate differences between old social movements and new social movements. They are picked up at random and can at best serve as random sampling and not as theory.

5.     The period of observation is very short and cannot arrive at a realistic, reliable framework of analysis. The new social movement theory is blatantly one sided as it highlights only those issues popularized within a small group of leftist believer. Right wing and liberal segments are totally ignored. Nsm does not take the right wing movements into account.

6.   The term ‘ new middle class’ is described but not defined lack of proper understanding leads to different meanings of it.

7.   Some of the social scientist demonstrates that the old liberal values, rather than new ones are predominant even in post industrial societies. According to the critique of NSMs many non materialistic issues were included in the industrial era and many materialistic movements are taking place in post- industrial society.

8.1 AG Frank and Marta Fuentes in their study of Nine Theses on New Social Movement provide with some kind of critical viewpoint towards New Social Movement Theory. These nine thesis are :

The new movements are not new even if they have new features; even old ones are relatively new.

Social movements have much variety and changeability, but have in common individual mobilization through a sense of morality and injustice and social power through social mobilization against deprivation and survival and identity.

The strength and importance of social movement is cyclical and related to long political, economic and ideological cycles. When the conditions changes they tend to disappear.

The class composition of social movements also varies- mostly middle call in the west, working class in the South. Most of the movements seek more autonomy rather than State power. They are more defensive than offensive, but they are agents of social transformation They look like agents and reinterpreters of ‘delinking from contemporary capitalism and transition to socialism

Some movements overlap in membership and have coalition relations with others Social movements write their own scripts and have their own agenda and strategies

The social movement theories cover a broad spectrum of movements and as such functions as an umbrella theory rather than definitive one. There is no unanimity about its nature and role, and its many fragmented streams make it hard to pinpoint which are minor and which are major. Its presence within democratic societies is of a supplementary nature, to be studied and analysed along with the constitutional and legal process.

Summing up

New social movements are product of the post –industrial society in which more importance is given to the social and cultural concern rather than economic and political considerations. Major actors who take participation in collective efforts of new social movements are from ‘New Middle Class’ instead of the lower classes. Social networks/organisation in new social movements is loosely organized and mainly informal in nature. New social movements are not only occurring at global level but occurring at local level also. Civil society is the main domain of collective action in new social movements. New social movements are often anti-authoritarian. NSM’s are mainly centered on a single or limited range of issues.

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