26 Response of the Political system against Articulation- Comparing Asia, Africa, and Latin America)

Dr. Kanwalpreet

Introduction

Articulation is a way for the citizens of a country to express their desires. It is a strategy by the people of a society to make their respective government aware about their aspirations and needs. A person can do so at an individual level and also by being a part of any social group. Articulation is necessary as it helps the government to keep a tab on the pulse of the people. Articulation, in any form, keeps the government alert and aware. It helps the members of the society to keep control on the government. Articulation also helps aids the dynamic forces within the political system. The government is bombarded at any time, with scores of demands raise by different sections of the society. A balance has to be maintained. All political systems, these days, comprise of huge populations. As the population increases, so do the demands. Articulation, then, becomes very important and if used, effectively as well as positively, can be a very important tool for building contact between the people and the political system. With societies becoming more complex, they are always in a state of flux. In such a situation, the scope of the government also increases manifold. In this era, where we have grown from a political system to a political system with an active civil society, articulation is graduating and moving into higher realms. A civil society is a society in which the people are involved in social, cultural, and political interactions which are free of the control of the state. Political system ‘is a value-free power system operating in the whole of the social system with its set

boundaries, goal, processes etc.1 The interactions that go into acquiring power are usually political. ‘Political’ word generally refers to power and authority. A ‘system’ comprises of any set of elements which is part of the whole and their interactions. In every political system, changes take place. ‘That social change is a ubiquitous phenomenon, and a static society is a conceptual nullity and an empirical impossibility are commonplace in contemporary social science.2 In this changing scenario, demands of the people keep on diversifying. Articulation of these demands then becomes crucial. With an increase in urbanization and industrialization, the society is being over-hauled. This leads to changes in the thought-process of the people. As awareness spreads, there is a demand for increased participation of the common citizen. This leads to a strange uneasiness among those who are in power. ‘As against the ‘spread effect’ of economic development, that of political revolution is one of ‘displacement syndrome.’ That is, all political revolutions, rebellious and revolts, by definition, imply the transfer of power from one category to another. Understandably, those who are likely to be deprived of power in the process would cognize these collective actions as undesirable. To complicate matters, the ruling elite would invariably project itself as the legitimate holder of power, although the sources of legitimacy may vary-divine or secular. And, there is a persistent tendency at least among a section of the population to support those who hold power. Therefore, any effort to question those who hold power, that is, to protest, is viewed, with suspicion and disdain’.3 Despite the disapproval, demands have to be articulated. The people have to show their approval as well as their disdain. People articulate their claims and aspirations because they want political action.

Articulation occurs at the boundaries of a political system. Thus, it becomes a very important step in linking the interactions between the people and their political system. The kind of articulation that occurs speaks volumes not only about the people’s participatory spirit but also the role played by the political system in accepting that participation or by rejecting it. The latter, if it happens, becomes a dangerous trend and is not according to the spirit of democracy. ‘Interest articulation is important because it marks the boundary between society and the political system’.4Articulation can be in many forms. People can sit on dharnas, strikes or take out

peace marches. Articulation can also be in the form of dialogue between the citizens and the political system. The people may group themselves into various pressure and interest groups so that their voice can reach the authorities and the desired action be taken. In extreme cases, articulation can take the form of an armed uprising, that is detrimental to the health of any political system. In every political system, people desire more freedom, more rights and more equality. But these are denied in many political systems, especially those that are authoritative or ruled by a monarch.

Repression of articulation in Asia

In Asia, China is a communist giant and there are stories galore about how the political system has responded to articulation in various

negative ways. No dissent or criticism is tolerated by the communist regime. The critics are either ‘purged’ (cleansed) or sent to the prisons that await them. The media is under State control and so is the internet. Though young professional Chinese dislike the lack of access to the internet, they are afraid to speak about their dissatisfaction. Prominent critics of the communist government are detained and then their confessions are aired on T.V. Pu Zhiqiang was arrested on June 2014. He is one China’s best-known lawyers. The charges against him are tat of creating disturbance. He advocates freedom of speech and defends dissidents, especially writers. For this he has been imprisoned for three years.

Ilham Tohiti, a Uighur economist, was sentenced to life imprisonment on charges of being a separatist in 2013. His assets were confiscated and bank accounts frozen. His seven students were also later tried in 2014. The Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, Liu Xiaobo is in prison for 11 years since 2009 and his wife Liu Xia is under extra-legal house arrest. A human rights activist, he calls for an end to the rule of communist party. A defender of press freedom, he articulated his views and is suffering in the hands of his own government. In the Tibetan plateau, any protest by even unarmed people leads to violent repression by the government. Not surprising, for China’s stories of repression have always shocked the world. The Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 in China left an unknown number of young dead and an equally number imprisoned. Also known as the June Fourth incident, the protest was by the university students and supported by the people who were asking for political as well as economic reforms. The Chinese had, then, been exposed to foreign ideas and a progressive China had led to the people becoming more westernised. The general secretary of CCP since 1980 Hu Yaobang had encouraged democratic reforms. He was forced to resign in January 1987 and subsequently died, mysteriously, in mid-April, 1987. People labelled him a martyr and on the day of his funeral thousands gathered to ask for further reforms. The crowd at Tiananmen Square grew everyday . The Chinese governments issued stern warnings but they went unheeded. Similar protests rose in other Chinese cities Nanjing, Chengdu and Shanghai. Ultimately, the hard-liners in the Party over-ruled the moderates and declared Martial law in Beijing. The people had gathered themselves around a statue called, ‘Goddess of Democracy’. On the night of June 3-4, tanks and heavily armed soldiers cracked down on the protesters, killing and crushing all those who tried to block their way. By morning, the Square had been cleared of protesters in Beijing as well as in the other cities. Thousands or dissidents were arrested, imprisoned and executed.

In Hong Kong in the year 2014, people led by students came out on the streets to ask for democratic reforms. This was known as the Umbrella Movement/Revolution where the protesters occupied the streets and important intersections for 79 days starting from Sept. 26, 2014 to December 15, 2014. The Chinese government didn’t offer any concessions and the protest camps were dismantled. The people of Hong Kong wanted universal adult suffrage but the Chinese government want that the candidates have to be approved by the Communist Party.

In 2015 when the protesters assembled again, they wanted freedom and were ready to articulate their demands through novel methods. But no-one heeded their demand for genuine democracy.

In Maldives, the Constitution requires all citizens to identify as Sunni Muslims. This leads to religious oppression against non-Muslims. The ex-President of Maldives, Mohamed Nasheed who is a human right activist and a democrat had to resign in 2012 after three years in power. He succeeded President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom who ruled the island country for 30 years from 1978 onwards. People suffered under him but dissent was not welcomed. Drug abuse, spread of Islamic fundamentalism, gap between the rich and the poor increased during his regime. Opposition was snuffed out. No political parties, read opposition, were allowed to exist in Maldives. The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) organized itself in Britain in 2001. The MDP opposed Gayoom but many of the supporters were killed brutally and tortured in prison. The police used the baton and tear-gas liberally. The MDP finally won the elections in October 2008. Mohammed Nasheed became the President but the judiciary created obstacles in his way as the latter was connected to the old regime. Nasheed was forced to step down from power on lame excuses. Nasheed had ordered the arrest of a senior judge. Imprisoned for 13 years, Nasheed, then, had to go to Britain for urgent medical treatment. The authorities told Nasheed to leave a relative behind to act as a guarantor, liable to prosecution if he failed to return to serve the rest of his 13-year sentence….’5 Citizens often report about the limitations on freedom of speech and the right to assemble. ‘Enforced disappearance, arbitrary arrests and detentions, state-sanctioned torture and widespread intimidation and censorship have significantly increased – in fact some have become commonplace’.6 The Maldives government refuses to acknowledge all this deprivation. The US Secretary of State, John Kerry described ‘democracy as under threat in the Maldives’.7

In Myanmar, the military regime has reportedly suppressed dissent. Efforts are made to exterminate certain ethnic minorities. The NLD leader, Aung San Suu Kyi, the voice of the people of Burma, had been placed under house arrest for many years. The media is totally under

the control of the military regime. There is no freedom of speech, assembly or association. In September and October 2007, people protested against the wrong policies announced by the military regime. The protesters were jailed by Buddhist monks who dominated the movement. The government cracked down on the protesters. They were beaten up. Even monks were tied and beaten up.The monks marched in silence to show their solidarity with the people. This protest is known as Saffron Revolution. Many casualties were reported in this crackdown. The monks, then, grouped together to form ‘All Burma Monks Alliance’ and asked an apology for the violence. But the military junta is firmly in saddle.

President Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov who was re-elected in 2012 in Turkmenistan maintains control over the resources of the country. The government denies freedom of expression and religion to its people. People who were imprisoned in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s cannot be traced. Media is controlled. During the time of President Najazov, who remained the President till 2006, the broadcasters began the broadcast on Television by taking a pledge that their tongue would shrivel if they criticised the flag, country or the President. Even the internet is heavily regulated. Any opposition to the government is considered as treason. Prominent leaders and activists have been given life imprisonment and their whereabouts are not known.

North Korea, another Communist country doesn’t believe in articulation. The Worker’s Party of Korea which is a rubber stamp for three generations of the Kim family, Kim II Sung in 1945 being the first does not believe in articulation. Thousands of prisoners are in jail with no hope of release and three generations of such prisoners are also condemned because the authorities believe in ‘guilt by association’. When loyal, senior members fall out with the regime, they are brutally executed. Anti-aircraft machine guns are used in executions.

Uzbekistan has a bad record of detaining civil rights activists. Opposition leaders have been imprisoned without a fair trial, journalists have been kept under house-arrest and international journalists have been deported. Women and children are forced to work in the cotton fields. Even Kazakhstan government has imprisoned its critics. Opposition groups are banned and media is under state control. Articulation does not garner any kind of respect from the government in these countries.

In Saudi Arabia systematic discrimination continues against women, religious minorities and peaceful political dissidents. Hundreds of people undergo arbitrary detention based on unfair trials. People are sentenced because the authorities feel that the person has broken allegiance with the ruler. The case of a human rights lawyer, Waleed Abu-al-Khair is one such case where he has been sentenced to 15 years in prison in 2015. Another human rights advocate Mikhlifal-Shammari has been sentenced to 5 years in prison because of his exposure of human rights abuses through his writings. Raif Badawi, another activist was sentenced to 1000 lashes and 10 years in prison for running a website that insulted Islam. Floggings are common. Freedom of speech and expression is regulated. Women, veiled or clad have no rights even on their own children. Press is controlled.

In Iraq, ‘an estimated 35,00 people mainly women and children are believed to be held as slaves in Iraq by Islamic state militants who impose a harsh rule marked by gruesome public executions’.8 The people from the Yezidi community are prosecuted if they ask for rights. Press censorship brutal executions, bulldozing and burning await protesters. Freedom of speech is alien to the people. These killings have the backing of the government. In other cases the Government is a mute spectator .

In Thailand, the military junta is in control. The ruling party, National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) led by Prime Minister, Gen-Prayuth Chan Ocha has persecuted all critics of the military junta. All political activities have been banned and the dissidents have been tried in military courts in unfair trials. The media is censored. People are detained without trial or any charge. Websites have been blocked. Public gatherings of more than five people have been banned. People who protest by putting tape on their mouth or by showing a three-finger, ‘Hunger games’, movies salute or by reading George Orwell’s 1984 novel are sent to prison. It has also prevented discussions and differences. Elections are being postponed and when people protest even silently, they are tortured.

Response of Political Systems in Africa

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In Egypt, for 60 years none could dare to speak against the dictators that ruled Egypt, one succeeding the other. It all started with President Gamal Abdel-Nasser who sent the secret police at night to whisk away opponents. The police was named as ‘night-visitors’ because Nasser’s opponents were never seen again. He was the ruler immediately after the end of the British occupation. Gamel was succeeded by Anwar Sadat in 1970. Sadat gets credit for opening of Egypt’s economy but remained totally in control of the political scenario in Egypt. To combat the leftists Sadat stifled opposition in the Universities by the University Law of 1979.

Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981. Presently, Hosni Mubarak is being tried. His rule lasted till January 2011, till the Arab Spring movement. Hundreds of members of Muslim Brotherhood, the opposition, have been persecuted on his orders. The police was brutal under him and elections were gagged. As he came to power he imposed the ‘emergency law’ so that his government could arrest and detain anybody without charge. Public gatherings were limited. The rich were getting richer and the poor, poorer. Hosni had to leave power when the pent-up frustration of the people brought them to the streets led by the Muslim brotherhood. But the rosy picture disappeared by 2013 when democracy was, again, shown the door.

Under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, autocracy has returned to Egypt. Hundreds of Brotherhood members have been sentenced to death. ‘In Egypt and Bahrain, autocracy is for greater and civil liberties for less’9. Sexual violence, executions and imprisonment are being used to quell dissidence. The judiciary is controlled and activists have been arrested for even laying flowers at the Tahrir Square, symbolic of the fourth anniversary of the Arab spring or even for wearing T-shirts that speak against violence and state sponsored torture. The military is firmly in power. Unarmed civilians have been killed.

The Special Operation Division (SOD) in Liberia beats up and takes students and any critic into custody. Journalists are beaten. Internal repression and suppression has increased in Liberia since 2000. Charles Taylor the 22nd President of Liberia who ruled till 2003 forced conscription on people. He has been blamed for forcing children below 15 years for conscription. With the authorities denying the people basic rights, the political system has responded to the people’s articulation negatively. He used ‘child soldiers’ for disputes and was guilty of aiding and abetting war crimes which have been termed as crimes against humanity. In November 2003, U.S. Congress offered a reward of two million dollars for Taylor’s capture. He was, subsequently, imprisoned and sentenced to 50 years in prison.

Robert Mugabe and his party African National Union- Patriotic Front in Zimbabwe have intimidated dissidents and political opponents. Rule of law does not prevail. Political violence is the hallmark of the country. There is no freedom of speech or assembly. The genocide in Matabeleland in Western Zimbabwe in the early 1980’s in which the Ndebeles, the indigenous people, have been displaced from their lands and persecuted when they opposed to do so is an example . The Fifth Brigade of Mugabe killed 20,000 civilians in this region and Mugabe said once that he had ordered the killing in a moment of madness.

Police used violence to prevent a meeting on March 11, 2007 organised by many like-minded civil-society groups at Zimbabwe grounds in Highfield, Harare. Many opposition leaders and activists were arrested. The meeting’s slogan was, ‘Save Zimbabwe campaign’. Mugabe said that he believed that his critics needed to be bashed up. A systematic repression of all those voices that speak against Mugabe started and opposition was gradually crushed.

Mugabe doesn’t believe in human rights. For lesbians and gays ,he says, they are worse than dogs and pigs. The ‘youth militia’ in Zimbabwe keeps dissent away. Mugabe remains firmly in power disregarding the opinion of his people.

President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo in Equatorial Guinea has been in power since 1979. Government represses journalists, members of opposition and civil society groups and engages itself in torture, unfair tricks and arbitrary detention. There is no freedom for the press. The pro-democracy Arab spring movements of 2011 were not raised in the country. Even foreign journalists are told to delete photos.

Libya’s dictator Muammar Gaddafi ruled his country for 40 years since 1969 till he was overthrown in 2011. The term ‘Green Terror’ was used to describe the violent and repression campaigns against his opponents. His opponents were publically hanged. Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973. Surveillance by Gaddafi’s Revolutionary Committees instilled fear among the people of Libya. His critics, anywhere in the world, were assassinated. He used his personal Revolutionary Guard Corps to crush opposition.

General Sani Abacha in Nigeria is known ,among other things, to brutally crush a strike by the Oil Workers in 1994 . For 6 years from 1993 to 1998, rule of law, freedom of speech, assembly, expression were abandoned. Assassinations, extra-judicial killings and torture were the hallmark of his regime . In Syria, the security forces were given sweeping powers to detain and arrest anybody from 1963 to April 2011. President Bashar al-Assad banned freedom of association, assembly and expression. Deaths in custody and people were imprisoned if they uttered anything against the regime. The political system responded by arresting people as ‘prisoners of conscience’ and others were held in incommunicado detention. ‘Weakening the national morale’, ‘weakening the national sentiment’, ‘conspiracy’ etc. were excuses for silencing critics. Human rights activists were banned from travelling abroad. News was filtered and internet was monitored minutely.

The government arrests its critics and advocates of democracy in Sudan. President al-Bashir has committed heinous crimes e.g. in Darfur, where non Arabs have been killed in large numbers, yet he is contesting elections. Arbitrary arrests and detentions are order of the day. Opposition members are physically assaulted. The media does not have a conducive environment to operate. Political parties are banned and so are trade unions. Ten years’ imprisonment awaits all those who indulge in political activity. The detainees are not informed of the reason for their arrest. They are even denied legal counsel.

The situation is equally grim in Somalia, Rwanda, Ethiopia and Cameroon among others. Because of colonialism and white repression, which can be considered the two twin problems of the African countries, these countries are more often subjected to military coup. The dominance of tribes leads to internal fighting. This leads to the rise of military dictators ably supported by the security forces who get over-whelming powers. The dictator and a small group of elite retain power by suppressing any opinion that differs from its own. The ousting of one dictator does not mean that democracy would be safe in that country. One dictator is replaced by another who continues with the same repression tactics as his predecessor. ‘Arab spring was always going to be a misleading phrase. It suggested a peaceful transition from authoritarianism to democracy similar to that from communism in Eastern Europe. The misnomer implied an over-simplified view of the political ingredients that produced the protests and uprisings of 2011 and over-optimistic expectations about their outcome. Five years later, it is clear that the result has been calamitous, leading to wars or increased repression in five of the six countries where the Arab spring principally took place.’10 The military regimes in these countries turned into brutal police states and controlled by one family.

Response of Political System to articulation in Latin America

Many Latin American countries are also reeling under the draconian laws passed by the dictators. Fidel Castro of Cuba used firing squads liberally even before he came to power to instill discipline and fear amongst his followers. Since his coming to power on January 1, 1959 thousands have been killed by the firing squads. No trial or hearing was given to the victims. The latter are forced to confess and then they are fired upon. Many citizens try to escape on boats to the United States of America. If caught while escaping, they are sent to the firing squad. Critics of Fidel Castro are sent to hard labour camps where they are without proper clothes and do not get adequate food. Arbitrary arrests are common. Prisoners are sent to mental hospitals in Santiago and Harare where they undergo electro-convulsive therapy, that too without anesthesia. Fidel Castro has, recently, handed over power to his brother, Raul Castro, who is continuing the legacy of Fidel Castro. Records are maintained of each individual. Many movements opposing the Castro brothers are working but they are violently suppressed. ‘Ladies in White’ who are also recipients of the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought and activists like Oscar Elias Biscat, Martha Beatriz Roque oppose Castro. Their struggle is non-violent yet they are suppressed. Free speech is allowed to the extent if it is according to the objectives of the socialist society and the artistic creativity should not be contrary to the spirit of Revolution. Augusto Pinochet created history in Chile, when he overthrew President Salvador Allende who treated him as a close ally. He got the palace of Allende bombed in 1973 while the latter was worrying about Pinochet’s safety. Pinochet got Carlos Prats, head of the armed forces assassinated. Prats treated Pinochet like his son. The defence minister, Jose Toha, another close friend of Pinochet was imprisoned and later killed. What followed was suspension of all political activity and it was declared it was in “recess”. Leftists were either killed or they just disappeared. Pregnant women were dropped from aeroplanes. The DINA secret police followed people even into other countries. Right to strike was abolished and wages were frozen. His ‘ Caravans of Death’ included small units that went from town to town eliminating critics and opponents.

In Nigeria, Anastasio Somoza Garcia ruled from 1936 to 1956. He was assassinated but his sons carried on his legacy. Supported by the United States of America , he violated human rights and brutally suppressed any opposition. Presently, the ruling Sandinista National Liberation Front is executing its opponents. Houses of the suspects are razed to the ground.

Haiti’s dictator ruler Jean-Claude Duvalier followed in his father’s footsteps, Francois, who died in 1971 and brutally repressed those not in his inner circle. President for life, Jean-Clauda Duvalier, ruled with an iron-fist and slaughtered people. Jean had to finally escape to Paris but returned in 2011. President Aristide came to power but has been overthrown by the Martelly government that supports Duvalier’s legacy. Repression is an all time high in Haiti. President Aristide was forced from power in 2004. The people are protesting against presidential elections because President Michel Martially is rigging the whole process and wants Jovenel Moise, their candidate to come to power. ‘The protesters demanded the creation of an interim government and fresh elections to be held after President Michel Martelly leaves office….’11 The protester were scattered with teargas and water hose.

Conclusion

Articulation is an important ingredient of democracy in any political system and repression of it can only mean a dictatorial form of government and gross violation of human rights. The American hegemony has led to dictatorship in many countries because the U.S.S.R. is not there to balance power. ‘In the words of President Museveni of Uganda, the end of superpower rivalry over the continent has ‘orphaned’ many a governments in Africa’.12 In Tanzania, the Societies Ordinance of 1954 gave the governor of the colony to declare a group illegal and unlawful if it was used for any purpose, in his opinion, that was incompatible with the maintenance of peace and good government. Repression of articulation can be extreme and this leads to human rights violations. ‘War crimes in Darfur – which a UN Commission found grave but short of ‘genocide’ have also been referred to the International Communal Court after the United States dropped its objection in 2005 (when exemptions for U.S. soldiers were restored).13

In Pakistan, Zia ul-Haq seized powers in July 1977 and authoritarian government returned to the country. He used coercion, threats coupled with blandishments to put himself firmly in power. ‘Initially, Zia secured his position by issuing a spate of martial-law regulations’.14 Articulation is a tough choice for democrats in Pakistan. The Army with the help of dictators continues to suppress articulation. The ‘Cultural Revolution’ in China in the 1950’s is an example of repression of articulation. ‘Cultural Revolution’ was the misleading name for a reign of terror accompanied by the most revolting cruelty’.15 Articulation is the lifeline of people in a democracy. Repressing it can only lead to revolutions and uprising. It is important for governments to adhere to the people’s voice and also give it due respect.

Suggested Readings

• Bertsche, Gary K., Clark, Robert P., Wood David, M., Comparing Political Systems: Power and Policy in Three Wolds, 1978, John Wiley and Sons.
• Bhadur, Kalini, and Uma Singh (eds.), Pakistan’s Transition to Democracy, Joint Study of Indian and Pakistani Schools, 1989, South Asia Books, New Delhi.
• Brass, Paul. The New Cambridge History of India, Vol. (rev.). The Politics of India since Independence, 1994, Cambridge University Press, New York.
• Brown, Louis T., The Challenge to Democracy in Nepal: A Political History, 1996, Routledge, London.
• Caramani, David, Comparative Politics, 2011, Oxford University Press.
• Chadda, Maya, Building Democracy in South Asia India, Nepal, Pakistan, 2000, Vistaar, New Delhi.
• Hague, Rod, Martin Harrop, Comparative Government and Politics, An Introduction, 2015, Palgrave Macmillan, Replika, New Delhi.
• Jayal, Niraja Gopal, Mehta, Pratap Basu, The Oxford Comparison to Politics in India, 2015, Oxford University Press.
• Palmer, Norman D., Perkins, Howard C., International Relations, The Word Community in Transition, 1997, A.I.T.B.S., New Delhi.
• Weiner, Myron, The Indian Paradox, 1989, New York.