{"id":122,"date":"2018-10-30T08:41:00","date_gmt":"2018-10-30T08:41:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/mgmtp14.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=122"},"modified":"2018-10-30T08:51:36","modified_gmt":"2018-10-30T08:51:36","slug":"consumer-behaviour","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/chapter\/consumer-behaviour\/","title":{"rendered":"Consumer Behaviour"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\n\u00a0 \u00a01.\u00a0<\/strong>Learning Outcome:<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAfter completing this module, the students will be able to:\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • Understand the concept of consumer behaviour<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Explain the determinants of consumer behaviour<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Describe the consumer buying process<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Meaning<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n

    Consumer behaviour is an orderly process whereby the consumer interacts with his or her environment (social, psychological, economic) for making purchase decision. It is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals, who are end-users of products or services, as they become aware of, evaluate, purchase, use and tell others about products or services. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour.<\/p>\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n

    James, Roger and Paul defined consumer behaviour as actions and processes of people who purchase goods and services for their personal consumption.<\/p>\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0<\/strong>Need for Studying Consumer Behaviour<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n

    The study of consumer behaviour is an attempt to understand as well as predict human actions in buying role. Knowledge of consumer behaviour and factors that influence consumer behaviour are important for marketers to achieve the objective of consumer satisfaction. The consumer research or consumer behaviour related research enables marketing executives to predict reaction of consumers to promotional messages and to understand why they take the purchase decisions the way they do. It helps in formulating effective marketing programmes and serving target markets in a profitable way.<\/p>\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n4.\u00a0<\/strong>Determinants of Consumer Behaviour<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n

    Consumer behaviour is dynamic and complex. It is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors. An explanation of these factors has been given below:<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (A)\u00a0<\/span>Economic factors<\/strong>: As per economists, <\/span>consumer is a rational person. He has perfect knowledge about <\/span>market. He tries to get maximum value for each unit of money and efforts spent. However, his buying <\/span>behaviour is affected by his personal income, family income, income expectation, level of standard of living and consumer credit available.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Personal income <\/em>is the reward for a person\u2019s economic efforts. It gives him purchasing power i.e. capacity to buy goods or services. In <\/span>marketing sense, personal income in gross terms is not relevant. Rather disposable and discretionary personal incomes are important to study <\/span>the consumer buying <\/span>behaviour. \u2018Disposable income\u2019 means the personal income available with the consumer after making necessary payments like taxes, interest charges, debt repayment etc. This is the residual income which a consumer can use the way he likes. Any change in disposable income affects consumer\u2019s buying decisions. An increase in disposable income leads to more consumer spending and even more demand for luxury items whereas <\/span>decrease in disposable income results in less consumer spending.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    \u2018Discretionary income\u2019 refers to the residual disposable income which is left with <\/span>consumer after meeting minimum subsistence needs (i.e. basic needs like food, clothes, shelter etc.) of family. An increase in discretionary income leads to more consumer spending usually on products that raise living standards like television, air-conditioner, computer, refrigerator etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Family income <\/em>is the sum total of individual income of all family members. In <\/span>joint family, consumer <\/span>behaviour is influenced by family income available after meeting family requirements.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Income expectations <\/em>in future influence consumer <\/span>behaviour. High or <\/span>low income expectations affect <\/span>level of current spending of <\/span>consumer on comforts of life or luxuries. If there are expectations of less income generation in <\/span>future, <\/span>consumer will curtail his present expenditure and will save more for <\/span>future.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Liquid assets <\/em>held by consumer affect his buying <\/span>behaviour. Liquid assets are the assets which are either in cash or can be converted into cash in a short period of time. Bank balance, bank deposits, saving certificates, government bonds are the few examples of liquid assets. These assets can be used to purchase consumer durables or meet future contingencies. Thus, liquid assets enable a consumer to freely spend his current income.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Availability of consumer credit <\/em>in the form of deferred payment, hire purchase agreement, <\/span>instalment buying etc. affects consumer buying <\/span>behaviour. Consumer credit is a facility provided to <\/span>consumer by the marketer to purchase the product and make payment in future. Thus, the credit facility enables <\/span>consumer to buy consumer durables which he would have postponed otherwise due to <\/span>paucity of funds or resources. Moreover, current income can be used by the consumer in a carefree manner.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The <\/span>living standard<\/em> enjoyed by the consumer also influences his buying <\/span>behaviour. With <\/span>reduction in income, consumer spending does not reduce proportionately as it is difficult for <\/span>consumer to make compromises in consumption of such goods which are necessary to maintain the living standard he is accustomed to. He tries to keep up the same standard of living even if his income falls.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (B)\u00a0<\/span>Socio-Cultural factors <\/strong>: Sociologists are of the view that individual consumer\u2019s <\/span>behaviour is affected by <\/span>group of individuals known as reference groups, opinion leaders and family. Consumer\u2019s buying decisions are also influenced by social class and culture.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    These factors have been explained in detail as under:<\/span><\/p>\r\n

    (i)\u00a0<\/span>Reference groups<\/em>: Reference groups are the social, religious and professional groups that exert direct or indirect influence on consumer\u2019s <\/span>behaviour. These are the small groups to which an individual belongs and seeks their guidance and advice to evaluate his opinions and beliefs. The information provided by these groups on <\/span>quality of a product, its performance, style etc. acts as a frame of reference. Friends, local club members, <\/span>neighbours, college living groups are the primary reference groups that have a direct influence on individual\u2019s buying decisions. Religious or professional groups are secondary reference groups that have an indirect influence on <\/span>individual\u2019s behaviour. Word-of-mouth communication is used to pass messages within the group members. Group members provide more relevant and additional information about new arrivals, brands, style and products which cannot be provided by mass-media. There are also aspirational groups that act as reference groups. <\/span>Consumer does not belong to such groups but his buying <\/span>behaviour is affected by life style or opinions of such groups. Sportsmen, successful businessmen, movie stars, models and political figures are the members of such groups. In today\u2019s digital environment, a new type of reference group that has emerged is the virtual group which brings together people who have different cultures but share a common ideology.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe reference groups have strong influence on individual\u2019s attitude, life-style and buying behaviour.\r\n\r\n \r\n

    (ii)\u00a0Opinion leaders<\/em>: Many a times, persons seek guidance of a particular individual in their group to form an opinion or take buying decisions. Such individual is called opinion leader who usually acts as informal group leader. His attitude, actions and beliefs influence the buying patterns of the group members. He sets the trend, tries new products and suggests other members to use such products if he has good experience. Opinion leaders can act as effective agencies of communication on behalf of marketers if marketing efforts are directed at opinion leaders.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n(iii)\u00a0Family<\/em>: Family exerts influence on consumer behaviour in two ways i.e. by influencing consumer personality and his decision making process involved in the purchases. Personal values, buying habits and attitude of an individual are being shaped by family influences. Family members have considerable influence on buying decisions. They play different roles in buying process as initiator, influencer, decider and\/or user. More than one role may be played by one family member. Housewife usually influences the decisions regarding food and grocery items. Husband and wife have joint influence on decisions regarding luxury items. Children influence the buying decisions relating to toys, clothes and sports equipments.\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Due to different roles of family members, the marketers are interested in knowing that (a) who influences buying, (b) who takes buying decision, (c) who actually buys and (d) who uses the product. This will help in formulating appropriate marketing mix. For example, if teenagers in the family are decision-makers, then promotion policies will be formulated accordingly.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Family life cycle also influences consumption pattern. E.g. expenditure on food and clothing generally increases when family expands due to birth of child. Similarly, other stages like maturation of children, married children leaving home also have impact on consumer expenditure patterns.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (iv)\u00a0Social class<\/em>: Consumer buying behaviour is influenced by social class. Social class is a homogeneous division in society into which families or individuals sharing similar values, life-style and behaviour can be categorized. In India, there exists three social classes i.e. upper class, middle class and lower class. One can observe differences in stores visited, products selected and magazines read by people\u00a0belonging to different social classes. Thus, social classes can be a base for market segmentation. It is usually seen that consumers in <\/span>upper class group use products and brands that are clear symbols of their social status. They can be attracted and retained through product differentiation, premium quality <\/span>and advertising. Consumers in <\/span>middle class group use rationality in their purchase decisions. They make <\/span>comparison of prices, quality etc. before buying any product. Such consumers can be influenced through advertisements in newspapers or television. Lower class consumers have <\/span>limited sense of choice- making and they usually make impulse buying. Such consumers can be attracted through <\/span>point of purchase materials like window banners, advertising on <\/span>package, information folders etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (v)\u00a0<\/span>Culture<\/em>: Culture adds another dimension to the study of consumer <\/span>behaviour. It includes a set of learned beliefs, customs, values, habits <\/span>and attitudes that serve to regulate <\/span>behaviour of members of a society. These values, beliefs, customs are adopted by society and passed from one generation to the next within that society. Culture has <\/span>significant influence on patterns of consumption and decision-making and <\/span>shape them right from infancy. Cultural changes take place due to social position, technological advancements, travel <\/span>and education. Marketers must understand the values, rituals, customs <\/span>and language of the culture of their target markets and develop marketing strategies for each culture separately. Within a culture, there exist sub cultures on the bases of caste, religion <\/span>and region etc. Cultural and sub cultural trends have important implications for market segmentation and designing marketing-mix.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (C)\u00a0<\/span>Psychological factors <\/strong>: Psychologists have explained the reasons as to why consumer behaves in a particular manner. According to them, motivation, perception, learning, attitude <\/span>and personality are the major psychological factors, internal to the individual, that affect the <\/span>behaviour of an individual as <\/span>consumer.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Motivation <\/em>is a driving force within individuals that impels them to some action. Motivation, in consumer, is related <\/span>with reasons that impel him to take certain buying actions. It is an inner force governing consumer <\/span>behaviour. An individual is motivated by physiological, social and psychological needs <\/span>till they are not satisfied. Individuals should be regarded as need-satisfying mechanisms who try to <\/span>fulfil a set of needs in a sequence reflecting their buying motives. Buying <\/span>motive is an urge prompting a person to purchase decision. For the same <\/span>behaviour, there can be different buying motives (stimulated or aroused needs) like safety, pride, fashion, love and affection, comfort, social approval etc. Thus, the study of motivation helps marketers in finding <\/span>rationale behind buying <\/span>behaviour. It helps in market segmentation, product development, product positioning <\/span>and advertising creativity.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Perception <\/em>influences consumer <\/span>behaviour. Consumer acts or reacts on the basis of his\/ her perceptions. Perception is a process whereby stimuli are received by an individual, interpreted by him and translated into a response. In simple words, it is how an individual sees the world around him. Different people, exposed to the same stimuli, will interpret and respond in different ways based on their wants, needs, values <\/span>and experiences. Perception is a selective process as it relates to the interpretation of information to select a response to <\/span>stimulus. In <\/span>marketing sense, every element of <\/span>marketing mix is a stimulus and purchase could be a response. Consumer perceptions influence marketing mix. Thus, understanding consumer <\/span>behaviour by marketers is essentially about understanding as well as managing perceptions. Perceptions change with time. Marketers can influence or change consumer perception through repetitive exposure.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Learning <\/em>significantly affects consumer <\/span>behaviour. Learning is a process by which consumer acquires purchase and consumption knowledge (usually through observation, discussion or reading) and experience and applies them to future related <\/span>behaviour. Most consumer <\/span>behaviour is learned. <\/span>Learning process involves the interplay of <\/span>drive, cues, response and\/ or reinforcement. <\/span>Drive is a strong internal stimulus impelling action. Cues are external stimuli coming from <\/span>market or social environment of consumer e.g. product or advertisement. Reaction to cue or drive constitutes <\/span>response. Reinforcement increases the possibility of <\/span>similar response in future i.e. repeat purchases. Marketers are interested in knowing that how consumers learn about products so that effective promotional strategies can be formulated.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Through learning, an individual acquires <\/span>attitude<\/em> which influences his buying <\/span>behaviour. Attitude is a state of mind, a learned predisposition to respond in a <\/span>favourable or <\/span>unfavourable way to an object. Attitudes develop gradually as a result of experience. They are difficult to change but a change in attitude leads to <\/span>change in buying <\/span>behaviour. An understanding of consumer attitudes is essential for the marketers to fit the product into existing attitudes, change the attitudes in the <\/span>favour of <\/span>product, or even create new attitudes through better marketing mix and effective promotion devices.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Personality <\/em>refers to an individual\u2019s inner psychological characteristics that determine and reflect how an individual responds to his or her own environment. Personality is a set of traits, attitude, habits, beliefs <\/span>and outlook. Consumer\u2019s personality has <\/span>impact on his buying decisions. According to Freudian psychoanalytic theory, consumer purchases are largely a reflection of consumer\u2019s own personality. Personality traits such as dependence, impulsiveness, responsibility, creativity, aggressiveness, sociability etc. can determine how people would behave. The study of personality traits helps marketers in knowing consumer innovativeness, his preference for uniqueness and response to different promotional messages. It guides marketing efforts regarding product positioning and marketing communications.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Apart from the <\/span>above mentioned factors, consumer <\/span>behaviour is also affected by occupation, life style <\/span>and age of <\/span>consumer.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    5.\u00a0<\/strong>Consumer decision \u2013making process<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Consumer decision-making <\/span>process, also called as buying process, explains how consumer takes purchase decisions. It represents a problem-solving approach followed by consumer and consists of five steps i.e. (i) Recognition of need (ii) Search for information (iii) Evaluation of alternatives (iv) Purchase decision and (v) Post-purchase evaluation. It is important to know that \u2018time lag\u2019 i.e. <\/span>time between need recognition and ultimate purchase is long for expensive durable products or new products whereas it is short for non-durable and less costly products. The various steps have been discussed in detail as below:<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (i)\u00a0<\/span>Recognition of need<\/em><\/strong>: Buying process starts when a need is felt for a product due to internal or external stimulus. Need is recognized when <\/span>consumer faces some problem or when <\/span>desire for something triggers a latent or hidden need. Recognized needs become wants. Consumer tries to <\/span>fulfil the most pressing (urgent) wants first due to his limited purchasing power. Advertising, packaging, product design, store locations, window displays are external stimuli that trigger need recognition in <\/span>consumer. Promotion-mix not only triggers <\/span>actual needs and desires of consumers but also offers selling points in the buying process.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (ii)\u00a0<\/span>Search for information<\/em><\/strong>: Search for information begins when <\/span>consumer feels that aroused need should be satisfied by purchase and consumption of a product but he is not sure about what type or brand of <\/span>product can provide <\/span>best satisfaction. He may have no idea that from where and how it can be secured. Consumer tries to get information about various models, brands, manufacturers, quality, price etc. He can collect information from personal and\/or impersonal sources. Personal sources of information include <\/span>neighbours, friends, relatives, opinion leaders, co-workers, salesmen <\/span>and dealers. Impersonal sources include internet, advertisements in television, radio or newspaper, package label, consumer reports, brochures, press articles etc. \u2018Shopping around\u2019 is another way of collecting external information and is usually preferred by women. The duration for information search depends on differences between available brands, perceived risk and\/or consumer\u2019s past experience with <\/span>product category.\u00a0<\/span>Marketers can assist consumers by providing relevant, reliable and up to date information through websites, window display, package, advertisements, retail outlets, dealers, salesmen and testimonials of past customers.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (iii)\u00a0<\/span>Evaluation of alternatives<\/em><\/strong>: The collected information is used to evaluate <\/span>the alternative products or services. Consumer assigns relative weights to different products and judges the relative worth of alternatives. The evaluation <\/span>behaviour varies with <\/span>situation, type of product and intensity of need. The consumer usually considers brand strength, brand image, manufacturers\u2019 reputation for quality, middlemen\u2019s reputation, product attributes, after sales services, availability of spare parts and most importantly utility value while evaluating different brands. Price is also used as criteria for evaluating brands but not an exact price figure rather a price range is used. Marketers can assist <\/span>consumer in <\/span>evaluation process by communicating product attributes and by clearly stating their brand\u2019s point of differentiation.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (iv)\u00a0<\/span>Purchase decision<\/em><\/strong>: After careful evaluation of various alternative choices, the purchase decision is taken. <\/span>Purchase decision is a judgment made by consumer on the basis of his attitude, lifestyle, level of motivation, perception <\/span>and learning which reflects his intention to buy some product. Purchase decisions are influenced by social factors such as <\/span>attitude of <\/span>reference group or situational factors such as dealer or middlemen\u2019s terms, falling prices, availability, loss of job, a bad report about <\/span>brand from <\/span>customer at <\/span>point of purchase, launch of better product etc. Perceived risk may influence the purchase decision. Purchase decision may be taken by the actual user or by the buyer. Purchase implies consumer commitment for a product. Practically, it is the last stage as it completes exchange activity. <\/span>Purchase may be a trial or adoption purchase which subsequently may result in repeat purchases if experience with <\/span>product is good. <\/span>Trial purchase is made by <\/span>consumer when he buys a product for the first time and in small quantity to accumulate experience. <\/span>Trial purchase is not possible in <\/span>case of consumer durables such as cars, scooters, air conditioners etc. The purchased product is adopted and repeatedly used. In such cases, marketers can help <\/span>consumer in his purchase decision through product demonstrations or money back guarantees. In <\/span>case of automobiles, <\/span>test drive can be offered.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    (v)\u00a0<\/span>Post purchase evaluation<\/em><\/strong>: After using the product, the consumer evaluates its actual performance in the light of his own expectations. When performance falls below expectations, it leads to dissatisfaction. However, performance exceeding expectations makes consumer delighted. It leads to positive word of mouth communication and\/or repeat purchases. In post purchase evaluation stage, the consumer usually tries to reassure himself that his choice was right. He attempts to reduce his post purchase anxiety or doubts (cognitive dissonance). Marketers can help in developing confidence about <\/span>purchased product by monitoring post purchase usage, emphasizing product performance and quick redressal of complaints.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    <\/div>\r\n
      \r\n \t
    1. Summary<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

      \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>Consumer behaviour is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals, who are end-users of products or services, as they become aware of, evaluate, purchase, use and tell others about products or services. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour. Consumer behaviour is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors. As per economists, consumer buying behaviour is affected by his personal income, family income, income expectation, level of standard of living and consumer credit available. Sociologists are of the view that individual consumer\u2019s behaviour is affected by group of individuals known as reference groups, opinion leaders and family. Consumer\u2019s buying decisions are also influenced by social class and culture. Psychologists have explained the reasons as to why consumer behaves in a particular manner. According to them, motivation, perception, learning, attitude and personality are the major psychological factors, internal to the individual, that affect the behaviour of an individual as consumer. Consumer behaviour essentially refers to decision processes. Consumer decision-making process, also called as buying process, explains how consumer takes purchase decisions. It represents a problem-solving approach followed by consumer and consists of five steps i.e. (i) Recognition of need (ii) Search for information (iii) Evaluation of alternatives (iv) Purchase decision and (v) Post-purchase evaluation.<\/p>\r\n\r\nLearn more<\/strong>\r\n\r\nFew important sources to learn more about consumer behaviour:<\/strong>\r\n

        \r\n \t
      1. Bose,S. Biplab (2010) Marketing Management<\/em>, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.<\/li>\r\n \t
      2. Blois Keith (2000). The Oxford Textbook of Marketing<\/em>, Oxford University Press Inc., New York<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      3. Gandhi,C J (1998). Marketing- A Managerial Introduction<\/em>, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi<\/li>\r\n \t
      4. Hawkins, Mothersbaugh and Mookerjee (2010). Consumer Behaviour: Building Marketing<\/em> Strategy<\/em>, 11th Edition, Special Indian Edition,Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.<\/li>\r\n \t
      5. Havaldar and Cavale (2011). Sales and Distribution Management: Text and Cases<\/em>, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      6. Kotler, Philip (2002). Framework for Marketing Management<\/em>, Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., Indian Branch, Delhi.<\/li>\r\n \t
      7. Kumra, Rajeev (2010). Consumer Behaviour: Applied Orientation in Indian Context<\/em>, Himalaya Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      8. Mukherjee, Srabanti (2012). Consumer Behaviour<\/em>, Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n
          \r\n \t
        • http:\/\/www.consumerpsychologist.com\/<\/li>\r\n \t
        • http:\/\/www.managementstudyguide.com\/what-is-consumer-behaviour.htm<\/li>\r\n \t
        • http:\/\/www.udel.edu\/alex\/chapt6.html<\/li>\r\n \t
        • http:\/\/iosrjournals.org\/iosr-jbm\/papers\/ncibppte-volume-1\/1014.pdf<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 Points to Ponder<\/strong>\r\n
            \r\n \t
          1. Consumer behaviour is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals,<\/strong> who are end-users of products or services.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t
          2. Consumer behaviour essentially refers to decision processes.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t
          3. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t
          4. Consumer behaviour is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","rendered":"
            \n

            \u00a0 \u00a01.\u00a0<\/strong>Learning Outcome:<\/strong><\/p>\n

            After completing this module, the students will be able to:<\/p>\n

              \n
            • Understand the concept of consumer behaviour<\/li>\n
            • Explain the determinants of consumer behaviour<\/li>\n
            • Describe the consumer buying process<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

              \u00a0 \u00a0 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Meaning<\/strong><\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              Consumer behaviour is an orderly process whereby the consumer interacts with his or her environment (social, psychological, economic) for making purchase decision. It is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals, who are end-users of products or services, as they become aware of, evaluate, purchase, use and tell others about products or services. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour.<\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              James, Roger and Paul defined consumer behaviour as actions and processes of people who purchase goods and services for their personal consumption.<\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              3.\u00a0<\/strong>Need for Studying Consumer Behaviour<\/strong><\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              The study of consumer behaviour is an attempt to understand as well as predict human actions in buying role. Knowledge of consumer behaviour and factors that influence consumer behaviour are important for marketers to achieve the objective of consumer satisfaction. The consumer research or consumer behaviour related research enables marketing executives to predict reaction of consumers to promotional messages and to understand why they take the purchase decisions the way they do. It helps in formulating effective marketing programmes and serving target markets in a profitable way.<\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              4.\u00a0<\/strong>Determinants of Consumer Behaviour<\/strong><\/p>\n

              \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

              Consumer behaviour is dynamic and complex. It is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors. An explanation of these factors has been given below:<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (A)\u00a0<\/span>Economic factors<\/strong>: As per economists, <\/span>consumer is a rational person. He has perfect knowledge about <\/span>market. He tries to get maximum value for each unit of money and efforts spent. However, his buying <\/span>behaviour is affected by his personal income, family income, income expectation, level of standard of living and consumer credit available.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Personal income <\/em>is the reward for a person\u2019s economic efforts. It gives him purchasing power i.e. capacity to buy goods or services. In <\/span>marketing sense, personal income in gross terms is not relevant. Rather disposable and discretionary personal incomes are important to study <\/span>the consumer buying <\/span>behaviour. \u2018Disposable income\u2019 means the personal income available with the consumer after making necessary payments like taxes, interest charges, debt repayment etc. This is the residual income which a consumer can use the way he likes. Any change in disposable income affects consumer\u2019s buying decisions. An increase in disposable income leads to more consumer spending and even more demand for luxury items whereas <\/span>decrease in disposable income results in less consumer spending.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              \u2018Discretionary income\u2019 refers to the residual disposable income which is left with <\/span>consumer after meeting minimum subsistence needs (i.e. basic needs like food, clothes, shelter etc.) of family. An increase in discretionary income leads to more consumer spending usually on products that raise living standards like television, air-conditioner, computer, refrigerator etc.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Family income <\/em>is the sum total of individual income of all family members. In <\/span>joint family, consumer <\/span>behaviour is influenced by family income available after meeting family requirements.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Income expectations <\/em>in future influence consumer <\/span>behaviour. High or <\/span>low income expectations affect <\/span>level of current spending of <\/span>consumer on comforts of life or luxuries. If there are expectations of less income generation in <\/span>future, <\/span>consumer will curtail his present expenditure and will save more for <\/span>future.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Liquid assets <\/em>held by consumer affect his buying <\/span>behaviour. Liquid assets are the assets which are either in cash or can be converted into cash in a short period of time. Bank balance, bank deposits, saving certificates, government bonds are the few examples of liquid assets. These assets can be used to purchase consumer durables or meet future contingencies. Thus, liquid assets enable a consumer to freely spend his current income.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Availability of consumer credit <\/em>in the form of deferred payment, hire purchase agreement, <\/span>instalment buying etc. affects consumer buying <\/span>behaviour. Consumer credit is a facility provided to <\/span>consumer by the marketer to purchase the product and make payment in future. Thus, the credit facility enables <\/span>consumer to buy consumer durables which he would have postponed otherwise due to <\/span>paucity of funds or resources. Moreover, current income can be used by the consumer in a carefree manner.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              The <\/span>living standard<\/em> enjoyed by the consumer also influences his buying <\/span>behaviour. With <\/span>reduction in income, consumer spending does not reduce proportionately as it is difficult for <\/span>consumer to make compromises in consumption of such goods which are necessary to maintain the living standard he is accustomed to. He tries to keep up the same standard of living even if his income falls.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (B)\u00a0<\/span>Socio-Cultural factors <\/strong>: Sociologists are of the view that individual consumer\u2019s <\/span>behaviour is affected by <\/span>group of individuals known as reference groups, opinion leaders and family. Consumer\u2019s buying decisions are also influenced by social class and culture.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              These factors have been explained in detail as under:<\/span><\/p>\n

              (i)\u00a0<\/span>Reference groups<\/em>: Reference groups are the social, religious and professional groups that exert direct or indirect influence on consumer\u2019s <\/span>behaviour. These are the small groups to which an individual belongs and seeks their guidance and advice to evaluate his opinions and beliefs. The information provided by these groups on <\/span>quality of a product, its performance, style etc. acts as a frame of reference. Friends, local club members, <\/span>neighbours, college living groups are the primary reference groups that have a direct influence on individual\u2019s buying decisions. Religious or professional groups are secondary reference groups that have an indirect influence on <\/span>individual\u2019s behaviour. Word-of-mouth communication is used to pass messages within the group members. Group members provide more relevant and additional information about new arrivals, brands, style and products which cannot be provided by mass-media. There are also aspirational groups that act as reference groups. <\/span>Consumer does not belong to such groups but his buying <\/span>behaviour is affected by life style or opinions of such groups. Sportsmen, successful businessmen, movie stars, models and political figures are the members of such groups. In today\u2019s digital environment, a new type of reference group that has emerged is the virtual group which brings together people who have different cultures but share a common ideology.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

              \n

               <\/p>\n

              The reference groups have strong influence on individual\u2019s attitude, life-style and buying behaviour.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (ii)\u00a0Opinion leaders<\/em>: Many a times, persons seek guidance of a particular individual in their group to form an opinion or take buying decisions. Such individual is called opinion leader who usually acts as informal group leader. His attitude, actions and beliefs influence the buying patterns of the group members. He sets the trend, tries new products and suggests other members to use such products if he has good experience. Opinion leaders can act as effective agencies of communication on behalf of marketers if marketing efforts are directed at opinion leaders.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (iii)\u00a0Family<\/em>: Family exerts influence on consumer behaviour in two ways i.e. by influencing consumer personality and his decision making process involved in the purchases. Personal values, buying habits and attitude of an individual are being shaped by family influences. Family members have considerable influence on buying decisions. They play different roles in buying process as initiator, influencer, decider and\/or user. More than one role may be played by one family member. Housewife usually influences the decisions regarding food and grocery items. Husband and wife have joint influence on decisions regarding luxury items. Children influence the buying decisions relating to toys, clothes and sports equipments.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Due to different roles of family members, the marketers are interested in knowing that (a) who influences buying, (b) who takes buying decision, (c) who actually buys and (d) who uses the product. This will help in formulating appropriate marketing mix. For example, if teenagers in the family are decision-makers, then promotion policies will be formulated accordingly.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Family life cycle also influences consumption pattern. E.g. expenditure on food and clothing generally increases when family expands due to birth of child. Similarly, other stages like maturation of children, married children leaving home also have impact on consumer expenditure patterns.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (iv)\u00a0Social class<\/em>: Consumer buying behaviour is influenced by social class. Social class is a homogeneous division in society into which families or individuals sharing similar values, life-style and behaviour can be categorized. In India, there exists three social classes i.e. upper class, middle class and lower class. One can observe differences in stores visited, products selected and magazines read by people\u00a0belonging to different social classes. Thus, social classes can be a base for market segmentation. It is usually seen that consumers in <\/span>upper class group use products and brands that are clear symbols of their social status. They can be attracted and retained through product differentiation, premium quality <\/span>and advertising. Consumers in <\/span>middle class group use rationality in their purchase decisions. They make <\/span>comparison of prices, quality etc. before buying any product. Such consumers can be influenced through advertisements in newspapers or television. Lower class consumers have <\/span>limited sense of choice- making and they usually make impulse buying. Such consumers can be attracted through <\/span>point of purchase materials like window banners, advertising on <\/span>package, information folders etc.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (v)\u00a0<\/span>Culture<\/em>: Culture adds another dimension to the study of consumer <\/span>behaviour. It includes a set of learned beliefs, customs, values, habits <\/span>and attitudes that serve to regulate <\/span>behaviour of members of a society. These values, beliefs, customs are adopted by society and passed from one generation to the next within that society. Culture has <\/span>significant influence on patterns of consumption and decision-making and <\/span>shape them right from infancy. Cultural changes take place due to social position, technological advancements, travel <\/span>and education. Marketers must understand the values, rituals, customs <\/span>and language of the culture of their target markets and develop marketing strategies for each culture separately. Within a culture, there exist sub cultures on the bases of caste, religion <\/span>and region etc. Cultural and sub cultural trends have important implications for market segmentation and designing marketing-mix.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (C)\u00a0<\/span>Psychological factors <\/strong>: Psychologists have explained the reasons as to why consumer behaves in a particular manner. According to them, motivation, perception, learning, attitude <\/span>and personality are the major psychological factors, internal to the individual, that affect the <\/span>behaviour of an individual as <\/span>consumer.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Motivation <\/em>is a driving force within individuals that impels them to some action. Motivation, in consumer, is related <\/span>with reasons that impel him to take certain buying actions. It is an inner force governing consumer <\/span>behaviour. An individual is motivated by physiological, social and psychological needs <\/span>till they are not satisfied. Individuals should be regarded as need-satisfying mechanisms who try to <\/span>fulfil a set of needs in a sequence reflecting their buying motives. Buying <\/span>motive is an urge prompting a person to purchase decision. For the same <\/span>behaviour, there can be different buying motives (stimulated or aroused needs) like safety, pride, fashion, love and affection, comfort, social approval etc. Thus, the study of motivation helps marketers in finding <\/span>rationale behind buying <\/span>behaviour. It helps in market segmentation, product development, product positioning <\/span>and advertising creativity.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Perception <\/em>influences consumer <\/span>behaviour. Consumer acts or reacts on the basis of his\/ her perceptions. Perception is a process whereby stimuli are received by an individual, interpreted by him and translated into a response. In simple words, it is how an individual sees the world around him. Different people, exposed to the same stimuli, will interpret and respond in different ways based on their wants, needs, values <\/span>and experiences. Perception is a selective process as it relates to the interpretation of information to select a response to <\/span>stimulus. In <\/span>marketing sense, every element of <\/span>marketing mix is a stimulus and purchase could be a response. Consumer perceptions influence marketing mix. Thus, understanding consumer <\/span>behaviour by marketers is essentially about understanding as well as managing perceptions. Perceptions change with time. Marketers can influence or change consumer perception through repetitive exposure.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Learning <\/em>significantly affects consumer <\/span>behaviour. Learning is a process by which consumer acquires purchase and consumption knowledge (usually through observation, discussion or reading) and experience and applies them to future related <\/span>behaviour. Most consumer <\/span>behaviour is learned. <\/span>Learning process involves the interplay of <\/span>drive, cues, response and\/ or reinforcement. <\/span>Drive is a strong internal stimulus impelling action. Cues are external stimuli coming from <\/span>market or social environment of consumer e.g. product or advertisement. Reaction to cue or drive constitutes <\/span>response. Reinforcement increases the possibility of <\/span>similar response in future i.e. repeat purchases. Marketers are interested in knowing that how consumers learn about products so that effective promotional strategies can be formulated.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Through learning, an individual acquires <\/span>attitude<\/em> which influences his buying <\/span>behaviour. Attitude is a state of mind, a learned predisposition to respond in a <\/span>favourable or <\/span>unfavourable way to an object. Attitudes develop gradually as a result of experience. They are difficult to change but a change in attitude leads to <\/span>change in buying <\/span>behaviour. An understanding of consumer attitudes is essential for the marketers to fit the product into existing attitudes, change the attitudes in the <\/span>favour of <\/span>product, or even create new attitudes through better marketing mix and effective promotion devices.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Personality <\/em>refers to an individual\u2019s inner psychological characteristics that determine and reflect how an individual responds to his or her own environment. Personality is a set of traits, attitude, habits, beliefs <\/span>and outlook. Consumer\u2019s personality has <\/span>impact on his buying decisions. According to Freudian psychoanalytic theory, consumer purchases are largely a reflection of consumer\u2019s own personality. Personality traits such as dependence, impulsiveness, responsibility, creativity, aggressiveness, sociability etc. can determine how people would behave. The study of personality traits helps marketers in knowing consumer innovativeness, his preference for uniqueness and response to different promotional messages. It guides marketing efforts regarding product positioning and marketing communications.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Apart from the <\/span>above mentioned factors, consumer <\/span>behaviour is also affected by occupation, life style <\/span>and age of <\/span>consumer.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              5.\u00a0<\/strong>Consumer decision \u2013making process<\/strong><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              Consumer decision-making <\/span>process, also called as buying process, explains how consumer takes purchase decisions. It represents a problem-solving approach followed by consumer and consists of five steps i.e. (i) Recognition of need (ii) Search for information (iii) Evaluation of alternatives (iv) Purchase decision and (v) Post-purchase evaluation. It is important to know that \u2018time lag\u2019 i.e. <\/span>time between need recognition and ultimate purchase is long for expensive durable products or new products whereas it is short for non-durable and less costly products. The various steps have been discussed in detail as below:<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (i)\u00a0<\/span>Recognition of need<\/em><\/strong>: Buying process starts when a need is felt for a product due to internal or external stimulus. Need is recognized when <\/span>consumer faces some problem or when <\/span>desire for something triggers a latent or hidden need. Recognized needs become wants. Consumer tries to <\/span>fulfil the most pressing (urgent) wants first due to his limited purchasing power. Advertising, packaging, product design, store locations, window displays are external stimuli that trigger need recognition in <\/span>consumer. Promotion-mix not only triggers <\/span>actual needs and desires of consumers but also offers selling points in the buying process.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (ii)\u00a0<\/span>Search for information<\/em><\/strong>: Search for information begins when <\/span>consumer feels that aroused need should be satisfied by purchase and consumption of a product but he is not sure about what type or brand of <\/span>product can provide <\/span>best satisfaction. He may have no idea that from where and how it can be secured. Consumer tries to get information about various models, brands, manufacturers, quality, price etc. He can collect information from personal and\/or impersonal sources. Personal sources of information include <\/span>neighbours, friends, relatives, opinion leaders, co-workers, salesmen <\/span>and dealers. Impersonal sources include internet, advertisements in television, radio or newspaper, package label, consumer reports, brochures, press articles etc. \u2018Shopping around\u2019 is another way of collecting external information and is usually preferred by women. The duration for information search depends on differences between available brands, perceived risk and\/or consumer\u2019s past experience with <\/span>product category.\u00a0<\/span>Marketers can assist consumers by providing relevant, reliable and up to date information through websites, window display, package, advertisements, retail outlets, dealers, salesmen and testimonials of past customers.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (iii)\u00a0<\/span>Evaluation of alternatives<\/em><\/strong>: The collected information is used to evaluate <\/span>the alternative products or services. Consumer assigns relative weights to different products and judges the relative worth of alternatives. The evaluation <\/span>behaviour varies with <\/span>situation, type of product and intensity of need. The consumer usually considers brand strength, brand image, manufacturers\u2019 reputation for quality, middlemen\u2019s reputation, product attributes, after sales services, availability of spare parts and most importantly utility value while evaluating different brands. Price is also used as criteria for evaluating brands but not an exact price figure rather a price range is used. Marketers can assist <\/span>consumer in <\/span>evaluation process by communicating product attributes and by clearly stating their brand\u2019s point of differentiation.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (iv)\u00a0<\/span>Purchase decision<\/em><\/strong>: After careful evaluation of various alternative choices, the purchase decision is taken. <\/span>Purchase decision is a judgment made by consumer on the basis of his attitude, lifestyle, level of motivation, perception <\/span>and learning which reflects his intention to buy some product. Purchase decisions are influenced by social factors such as <\/span>attitude of <\/span>reference group or situational factors such as dealer or middlemen\u2019s terms, falling prices, availability, loss of job, a bad report about <\/span>brand from <\/span>customer at <\/span>point of purchase, launch of better product etc. Perceived risk may influence the purchase decision. Purchase decision may be taken by the actual user or by the buyer. Purchase implies consumer commitment for a product. Practically, it is the last stage as it completes exchange activity. <\/span>Purchase may be a trial or adoption purchase which subsequently may result in repeat purchases if experience with <\/span>product is good. <\/span>Trial purchase is made by <\/span>consumer when he buys a product for the first time and in small quantity to accumulate experience. <\/span>Trial purchase is not possible in <\/span>case of consumer durables such as cars, scooters, air conditioners etc. The purchased product is adopted and repeatedly used. In such cases, marketers can help <\/span>consumer in his purchase decision through product demonstrations or money back guarantees. In <\/span>case of automobiles, <\/span>test drive can be offered.<\/span><\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              (v)\u00a0<\/span>Post purchase evaluation<\/em><\/strong>: After using the product, the consumer evaluates its actual performance in the light of his own expectations. When performance falls below expectations, it leads to dissatisfaction. However, performance exceeding expectations makes consumer delighted. It leads to positive word of mouth communication and\/or repeat purchases. In post purchase evaluation stage, the consumer usually tries to reassure himself that his choice was right. He attempts to reduce his post purchase anxiety or doubts (cognitive dissonance). Marketers can help in developing confidence about <\/span>purchased product by monitoring post purchase usage, emphasizing product performance and quick redressal of complaints.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

              <\/div>\n
                \n
              1. Summary<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>Consumer behaviour is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals, who are end-users of products or services, as they become aware of, evaluate, purchase, use and tell others about products or services. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour. Consumer behaviour is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors. As per economists, consumer buying behaviour is affected by his personal income, family income, income expectation, level of standard of living and consumer credit available. Sociologists are of the view that individual consumer\u2019s behaviour is affected by group of individuals known as reference groups, opinion leaders and family. Consumer\u2019s buying decisions are also influenced by social class and culture. Psychologists have explained the reasons as to why consumer behaves in a particular manner. According to them, motivation, perception, learning, attitude and personality are the major psychological factors, internal to the individual, that affect the behaviour of an individual as consumer. Consumer behaviour essentially refers to decision processes. Consumer decision-making process, also called as buying process, explains how consumer takes purchase decisions. It represents a problem-solving approach followed by consumer and consists of five steps i.e. (i) Recognition of need (ii) Search for information (iii) Evaluation of alternatives (iv) Purchase decision and (v) Post-purchase evaluation.<\/p>\n


                \nLearn more<\/strong><\/p>\n

                Few important sources to learn more about consumer behaviour:<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. Bose,S. Biplab (2010) Marketing Management<\/em>, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.<\/li>\n
                2. Blois Keith (2000). The Oxford Textbook of Marketing<\/em>, Oxford University Press Inc., New York<\/span><\/li>\n
                3. Gandhi,C J (1998). Marketing- A Managerial Introduction<\/em>, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi<\/li>\n
                4. Hawkins, Mothersbaugh and Mookerjee (2010). Consumer Behaviour: Building Marketing<\/em> Strategy<\/em>, 11th Edition, Special Indian Edition,Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.<\/li>\n
                5. Havaldar and Cavale (2011). Sales and Distribution Management: Text and Cases<\/em>, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n
                6. Kotler, Philip (2002). Framework for Marketing Management<\/em>, Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., Indian Branch, Delhi.<\/li>\n
                7. Kumra, Rajeev (2010). Consumer Behaviour: Applied Orientation in Indian Context<\/em>, Himalaya Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n
                8. Mukherjee, Srabanti (2012). Consumer Behaviour<\/em>, Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                    \n
                  • http:\/\/www.consumerpsychologist.com\/<\/li>\n
                  • http:\/\/www.managementstudyguide.com\/what-is-consumer-behaviour.htm<\/li>\n
                  • http:\/\/www.udel.edu\/alex\/chapt6.html<\/li>\n
                  • http:\/\/iosrjournals.org\/iosr-jbm\/papers\/ncibppte-volume-1\/1014.pdf<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                    \u00a0 \u00a0 Points to Ponder<\/strong><\/p>\n

                      \n
                    1. Consumer behaviour is all social, psychological and physical behaviour of individuals,<\/strong> who are end-users of products or services.<\/strong><\/li>\n
                    2. Consumer behaviour essentially refers to decision processes.<\/strong><\/li>\n
                    3. Consumer behaviour is reflected in buying activities and includes communication, purchase and consumption behaviour.<\/strong><\/li>\n
                    4. Consumer behaviour is influenced by various factors. These factors are broadly classified as economic, socio-cultural and psychological factors.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dr-rajwant-kaur"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[60],"license":[],"class_list":["post-122","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dr-rajwant-kaur"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/122","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/122\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":126,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/122\/revisions\/126"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/122\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=122"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=122"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=122"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp14\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=122"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}