{"id":198,"date":"2018-10-26T08:22:39","date_gmt":"2018-10-26T08:22:39","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/mgmtp13.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=198"},"modified":"2018-10-26T08:38:26","modified_gmt":"2018-10-26T08:38:26","slug":"types-of-groups","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/chapter\/types-of-groups\/","title":{"rendered":"Types of groups"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Module 22: Types of groups<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Learning Outcome\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Types of groups\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Intergroup dynamics and behaviour\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1 Intergroup conflict\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2 Consequences of intergroup conflict\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.3 Improving intergroup relations\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Task and maintenance functions of groups\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 +actors Influencing Group Effectiveness\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Summary\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n2.\u00a0 <\/strong>LEARNING OUTCOME<\/strong>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • After going through the lesson you should be able to ;<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Delineate the different types of groups that can be there in the organizations.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Understand the Intergroup dynamics and behaviour , Intergroup conflict and Consequences of intergroup conflict<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Find out how\u00a0 intergroup relations can be improved<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Outline the Task and maintenance functions of groups and the Factors Influencing Group Effectiveness.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n3<\/strong>. INTRODUCTION<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    In this lesson we are going to decipher the different types of groups that emerge in the organization as apart of its structure. The official structure of the organization gives rise to formal groups and the unofficial structure gives rise to informal groups. The study of group behavior has garnered a lot of interest in the global business scape because of increasing workforce diversity in the organizations and the challenges posed by such a diversified group which mans the organizations. It is a challenge for behavioral specialists to leverage the workforce diversity in their favor by utilizing their creativity for product and service development.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4. TYPES OF GROUPS<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    In the organizational structure , the Groups can be either formal or informal depending upon their<\/strong> nature.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The Formal groups <\/strong>are those which are defined by the organization\u2019s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks where; the behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. E.g. an airline flight crew is an example of a formal group.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The Informal groups <\/strong>can be referred to as alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined where; Natural formations in the work environment are in response to the need for social contact. e.g. Three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The formal groups can be further classified as command groups and task groups<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The Command groups <\/strong>are dictated by the formal organization where the organization chart determines a command group.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The Task groups <\/strong>are organizationally determined and represent those working together to complete a job task. A task group\u2019s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. For instance, if a college student is accused of a campus crime, it may require communication and coordination among the dean of academic affairs, the dean of students, the registrar, the director of security, and the student\u2019s advisor. All command groups are also task groups, but the reverse need not be true.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nThe informal groups can be further classified as interest groups and Friendship\u00a0\u00a0 groups .<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    An interest group <\/strong>is where People affiliate to attain a specific social objective with which each is concerned.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Friendship groups <\/strong>often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age or ethnic heritage. The Informal groups satisfy their members\u2019 social needs.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Type of Work groups in formal groups<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Group types are routinely distinguished by the work that the groups do, they can be any one of the following ;<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Production groups <\/strong>consist of front line employees who produce some tangible output. Autonomous production groups are self-directed or self-managing while semi-autonomous production groups typically have a dedicated supervisor who oversees all operations.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Service groups <\/strong>consist of employees that work with customers on a repeated basis, such as airline teams, maintenance groups, sales groups, call centre\u2019s, etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Management groups <\/strong>consist of an executive or senior manager along with managers that report directly to him\/her. Management groups are often able to organize themselves towards goals such as policy making, budgeting, staffing, and planning.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Project groups <\/strong>are generally cross-function groups of individuals brought together for the duration of a specific, time-limited project. Project groups are usually disbanded once the project is complete.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Action and performing groups <\/strong>are groups that typically consist of expert specialists who conduct complex, time-limited performance events. Examples include musical bands, military crews, surgery teams, rescue units or professional music groups.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Advisory groups <\/strong>consist of employees that work outside of, but parallel with, production processes. Examples include quality circles, selection committees, or other advisory groups pulled together to make recommendations to an organization.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.\u00a0 <\/strong>INTERGROUP DYNAMICS AND BEHAVIOUR<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Intergroup behaviour, or the way groups interact with other groups, is best examined in terms of the frequency and interaction type the groups engage in. Thomas (1976) elaborated on this concept by noting that the nature of intergroup interactions depends largely on the degree to which groups must interact to achieve their goals, and the degree of compatibility between the goals of different groups. Intergroup dynamics and behavior can take any of the following connotations.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Accommodation <\/strong>interaction is based on groups having similar goals and taking part in minimal to moderate mutual concession and cooperation to achieve them.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Avoidance <\/strong>interaction is found between groups where there are different or conflicting goals and even minimal collaboration is not warranted. Both of these interactions are viewed as having no to low impact on successfully achieving each group's goals.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Collaboration <\/strong>interaction is necessary when the goals of two groups are largely compatible and partnership is required for successful goal accomplishment.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Competition <\/strong>interaction usually occurs when two groups must interact to meet specific goals that are vastly incompatible.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Compromise <\/strong>interaction occurs when two groups have a moderate need to interact to meet specific goals that are moderately compatible. In this interaction, the two groups may work together on a semi-regular basis to ensure they are on track to meet the overlapping goals.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    De individuation <\/strong>is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals of a group become less aware of their values.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Diffusion of responsibility <\/strong>is the tendency for group members to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when surrounded by others who are behaving in a similar manner.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Intergroup behavior is influenced by factors beyond interaction types. Examples of these include Interdependence, Organizational Culture, Past History, and Organizational Social Networks.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Interdependence <\/strong>is the degree to which group depend on each other and is determined by the type of group tasks (i.e., simple versus complex), organization structure, and the organizational authority system). Interdependence may occur in one of three common forms:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n

    o Pooled interdependence:<\/strong> The combined efforts of largely separate groups positively contribute to the organization.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    o Sequential interdependence:<\/strong> The effort or output of one group is used as the input for another group.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    o Reciprocal interdependence:<\/strong> A series of mutual exchanges between groups, requiring a high degree of continuous interactions.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Organizational culture <\/strong>and its shared norms, values, and power structure, often dictate the frequency and degree to which intergroup interactions and collaborations occur.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Past history with intergroup relationships <\/strong>also impact interdependence behaviour. The influence of this factor is directly connected to the past interaction experience between groups. Whether the interaction was positive or negative, new group members may be influenced in the direction of the group's previous experience.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Social networks in organizations <\/strong>are another vital factor when considering intergroup behaviour. Cordial individual group member interaction is believed to greatly impact the quality of intergroup relationships.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1 INTERGROUP CONFLICT<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Intergroup conflict may be caused by competition for resources, goal incompatibility, time incompatibility, and contentious influence tactics. There are activities that organizations can participate in to reduce or prevent competition between groups.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Resources: <\/strong>Resources (e.g., budgets, personnel, physical space) are generally limited within organizations so that competition for resources between groups is often unavoidable.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Goal Incompatibility: <\/strong>Goal incompatibility occurs when the goals of two or more groups are in direct opposition such that one group achieves its goal while the other group cannot meet their goal. Goal incompatibility may be distinguished between real goal incompatibility and perceived goal incompatibility.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Time Incompatibility: <\/strong>Work groups perform different tasks, have different goals, and interact with different customers, such that groups operate under different deadlines.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Contentious Influence Tactics: <\/strong>Contentious influence tactics (e.g., threats, demands, and other negative behaviour) may be used to try to influence members of another group, creating cycles of retaliation and influencing opinions of those within their own group (e.g., bad reputations).<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2 CONSEQUENCES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nEffects related to conflict between groups may be either negative or positive.\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Group members' perceptions of one another change in a negative manner where a distinction is made between \"in-group\" and \"out-group\".<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Members of groups in conflict develop an \"us versus them\" mentality and view members of the other group as fundamentally different from themselves but similar to each other.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nGroup members become more cohesive to compete against a \"common enemy\".\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Quality of intergroup interactions (e.g., communication) may decline among groups in conflict, which in turn may decrease the quality of work.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Negative perceptions of the other group may be transferred to incoming group members. Conflict may create discrepancies between the goals of the group and the goals of the\u00a0<\/span>organization.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.3 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    The quality of intergroup relations can be improved by introducing super ordinate goals, negotiation, member exchanges, intergroup team development, Reducing the need for intergroup interaction and ensuring that the resource allocation process is fair and equitable to all the members in the organization.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Super ordinate goals <\/strong>are goals that are approved by all groups and that may require the groups to interact in a cooperative manner to achieve the goals (e.g., produce a product, prepare a report, and complete a service to customers). Super ordinate goals may also be used to create a \"common enemy\" that increases the cohesion among group members to defeat the enemy<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nNegotiation <\/strong>may facilitate communication of issues that cause conflict between groups so that groups can form a resolution suitable to everyone. Principled negotiation<\/em> is a style of negotiation where members try to problem-solve until they reach a resolution, rather than focus on individual positions. (Fischer and Ury, 1981)\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Member exchanges <\/strong>allow group members to exchange roles with those of the other group members.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nThese exchanges are intended to provide a new perspective.\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Intergroup Team Development <\/strong>may be used to improve relations for members within the same group or between groups. One intervention developed by Blake, Shephard, and Mouton (1964) has members of both groups generate one list about how the group perceives the other group and one list that describes how they think the other group describes them. The groups share the lists to reduce misperceptions.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Reducing the need for intergroup interaction <\/strong>may be necessary for work groups that cannot work well together. A \"coordinating group\" may be used as an intermediary between groups so that each group would communicate through the \"coordinating group\". Organizations may create slack resources by adding additional inventory so that groups do not have to interact as frequently. Organizations may also reduce task interdependence between those groups that function under different time frames and deadlines (i.e., physically separate the groups).<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The resource allocation process should be fair<\/strong> so that all groups have access to the process and political considerations between groups are minimized. Organizations should first reexamine the process to determine that groups have the resources needed to be effective.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n6. TASK AND MAINTAINANACE FUNCTIONS OF GROUPS<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Whatever the type of group, a formal one or an informal one, it needs to perform its designated functions in an effective and efficient manner. More importantly every group needs to perform task functions for the successful performance of the work or the tasks and maintenance functions for ensuring the satisfaction of the members and inculcating team spirit in them. The performance of these functions enables the group members to enjoy the social benefits of psychological intimacy and integrated\u00a0involvement. Lets us find out what are the various task and maintenance functions of the groups as delineated below<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Task Related Functions<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Those activities which are directly related to the effective completion of the teams\u2019 task are called task functions which involves;<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Initiating activities like suggesting newer ideas, defining the problems crisply and in unambiguous terms, proposing the alternative solutions to the problems etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The task of Seeking information involves asking for ideas, suggestions, information or various facts related to the task which would help in its successful completion.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nGiving the relevant information\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Elaborating the various concepts which may not be clear to the group members<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Coordinating the various activities of the group members and ensuring there is no overlapping in the tasks<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Summarizing the ideas given by the members and reaching to some logical conclusions Testing the ideas by trying and applying them<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nEvaluating the effectiveness of the ideas\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nDiagnosing the problems if any in the tasks and rectifying them\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Maintenance Related Functions<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    These functions could be more important than the task functions as these help in creating a warm comfortable and friendly environment in the group. It enhances the satisfaction level of the group members and improves the interpersonal relations and bonding. The group which takes the pains together sticks together and helps the members in overcoming the obstacles more effectively than a non cohesive group. These functions could be ;<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nSupporting the members come what may\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nFollowing other members lead can prove to be as important as being a leader\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Gate keeping the communication by balancing the contributions from all members, this is important because the journey to the achievement of the tasks is usually replete with anxieties and tensions which needs to be taken care of for the smooth functioning of the group.it is essential that all the negative and destructive energies are nipped at the bud.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Setting high and reasonable standards of performance for the group Allowing the group members to express themselves freely<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nTesting the group decisions Consensus testing\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nHarmonizing conflicting situations Reducing tensions\r\n\r\n \r\n

    o It is needless to mention that both task and maintenance functions are absolutely necessary for the successful completion of the given and desired tasks by the groups.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n7. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP EFFECTIVENESS<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Though there are a number of factors which might influence the effectiveness of the groups, but some the most prominent factors could be the structure of the team or the group, the work team processes. Apart from these two factors other factors which are gaining importance in the global workplace of today are the workforce diversity and creativity which have significant and visible impact on the functioning and outcomes of the group. Lets discuss them one by one in brief.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Work Team\/Group Structure\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Work Team Processes\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Diversity\r\n\r\n4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Creativity\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0 <\/strong>The Work Team\/Group Structure<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe first and the most important dimension of ensuring group effectiveness is to have a well defined and structured work group , encompassing the following four things;\r\n\r\n \r\n

    a)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Goals and Objectives, clearly outlining what is to be achieved.<\/p>\r\n

    b)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Operating Guidelines, which sets the organizational boundaries and decision making limits within which the group has<\/p>\r\nto operate.\r\n\r\nc)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Performance Measures ,to be applied for evaluating the group performance\r\n\r\nd)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Role Specifications for the individual executives and the whole group should be very clearly delineated and\r\n\r\ndisseminated through out the group to enable them to coordinate activities with each other in a more effective and efficient\r\n

    manner. This would also include information with regard to the role behaviors required of the executives. The expectations of<\/p>\r\nthe group with regard to the performance outcomes should also be clearly outlined in the role specifications.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n2. Work Team Processes<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    The second important dimension of ensuring group effectiveness is to have a well defined Work Team Processes, encompassing the two process issues;<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    a) Managing of cooperative behaviors ; which includes open communication, trust faith, interdependence of group members, personal integrity and mutual support amongst the members.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    b) Managing of competitive behaviors ; enjoying and encouraging the spirit of healthy competition amongst members, disseminating correct information with regard to the presence of competition .<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Both these behaviors are not only necessary but absolutely essential for the achievement of the tasks. Hence they should be viewed as complimentary to each other. It has been shown in one research that the\u00a0presence of competitive rewards enhanced the speed of performance and the presence of cooperative rewards enhanced the accuracy of performance.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n3.\u00a0 Diversity<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Today\u2019s organizations are in stark contrast to the earlier organizations where workforce diversity was hardly visible. On the other hand workforce diversity is the hallmark of today\u2019s organizations where diversity in terms of ethnicity, gender, culture is clearly visible. A diverse workforce can nevertheless prove to be quite beneficial to the organization as it will have diversity of knowledge skills and abilities to contribute to the organizations goals and objectives. It has been found that the members of a diversified group usually exhibit one of the five basic styles which are good for the group effort.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    These are: The contributor, The collaborator, The communicator, The challenger <\/strong>and The integrator.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The contributor; <\/strong>who is data driven and justifies everything with facts and figures and believes in taking a rational informed decision by adhering to high standards of performance<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The collaborator <\/strong>; is the one who enables everybody in the organization to be focused on the achievement of the desired mission and purpose .<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The communicator<\/strong>; is the one who listens to every member well, facilitates the groups processes and humanizes the collective efforts of the group members.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The challenger <\/strong>; is the one who acts like a devil\u2019s advocate in the group and does not hesitate in questioning everything and every member with regard to every issue ranging from the purpose to the mission to the methodologies to even the ethical standards of the group.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

    The integrator; <\/strong>is the one who ensures that the conflicts and problems of cross functional and diverse teams are sorted out and do not hamper the groups productivity and efficiency.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4. Creativity<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Though creativity is increasingly viewed as an individual strait, research has shown that most of the product developments have taken place due to team creativity. It is because of the diversified groups and teams that the groups are able to deliver above average and sometime s extraordinary performance. In fact Leigh Thompson feels that creativity can be enhanced in the organizations by ensuring greater diversity in teams.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n8. SUMMARY<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups\u2014those defined by the organization\u2019s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks, Informal groups can be referred to as alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined .It is possible to sub-classify groups as command, task, interest, or friendship groups. The various Types of Work groups in formal groups can be Production groups ,Service groups ,Management groups ,Project groups ,Action and performing groups and Advisory groups .Intergroup behavior can assume different platforms like Accommodation, Avoidance, Collaboration, Competition , Compromise ,De individuation and . Interdependence which may be either Pooled interdependence, Sequential interdependence or Reciprocal interdependence\u00a0Intergroup conflict may be caused by competition for resources, goal incompatibility, time incompatibility, and contentious influence tactics. There are activities that organizations can participate in to reduce or prevent competition between groups. Effects related to conflict between groups may be either negative or positive. The quality of intergroup relations can be improved by introducing super ordinate goals, negotiation ,member exchanges ,intergroup team development and reducing the need for intergroup interaction .Whatever the type of group, a formal one or an informal one, it needs to perform its designated functions in an effective and efficient manner. More importantly every group needs to perform task functions for the successful performance of the work or the tasks and maintenance functions for ensuring the satisfaction of the members and inculcating team spirit in them. Though there are a number of factors which might influence the effectiveness of the groups, but some the most prominent factors could be the structure of the team or the group, the work team processes. Apart from these two factors other factors which are gaining importance in the global workplace of today are the workforce diversity and creativity which have significant and visible impact on the functioning and outcomes of the group.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Learn More:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
    • L.M. Prasad, Management Process and Organizational, Sultan Chand & Sons.<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Concepts,<\/em> Prentice Hall, India Gary Desslar, <\/span>Organization Theories,<\/em> Prentice Hall, India<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    • P.G. Aquinas, \"Organisational Behaviour<\/em> \", Excel Books, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    • Argyris C. (1962) \"Interpersonal competence and Organisational Effectiveness<\/em>, Irwin, Homewood III Ashburner L. (1990) <\/span>\"Impact of Technological and Organizational Change<\/em> Personnel Review U.K. Bernard M. Bass and Edward C. Ryterband (1979) <\/span>\"Organizational Psychology\",<\/em> (2nd Ed) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    • Boss R. W. (1989) \"Organizational development in Health care\",<\/em> Addison-Wesley Mass; Reading. French W . and Bell C. (1978) <\/span>\"Organisation development<\/em> \", (2nd Edition) Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs N.J.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    • George J.M. (1990), \u201cPersonality Effect, and Behaivour in Groups\u201d, Journal of Applied\u00a0 Psychology, Vol.75.<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Marvin D. Dunnette (1976), \u201cHandbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology\u201d, Rand McNally, Chicago.<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Marvin E. Shaw (1981), \u201cGroup Dynamics : The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour\u201d, (3rd Ed.) McGraw Hill, New York.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"
      \n

       <\/p>\n

      1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Module 22: Types of groups<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

      2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Learning Outcome<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Types of groups<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Intergroup dynamics and behaviour<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      5.1 Intergroup conflict<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      5.2 Consequences of intergroup conflict<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      5.3 Improving intergroup relations<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Task and maintenance functions of groups<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 +actors Influencing Group Effectiveness<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Summary<\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

       <\/p>\n

      2.\u00a0 <\/strong>LEARNING OUTCOME<\/strong><\/p>\n

        \n
      • After going through the lesson you should be able to ;<\/li>\n
      • Delineate the different types of groups that can be there in the organizations.<\/li>\n
      • Understand the Intergroup dynamics and behaviour , Intergroup conflict and Consequences of intergroup conflict<\/li>\n
      • Find out how\u00a0 intergroup relations can be improved<\/li>\n
      • Outline the Task and maintenance functions of groups and the Factors Influencing Group Effectiveness.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
        \n

         <\/p>\n

        3<\/strong>. INTRODUCTION<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        In this lesson we are going to decipher the different types of groups that emerge in the organization as apart of its structure. The official structure of the organization gives rise to formal groups and the unofficial structure gives rise to informal groups. The study of group behavior has garnered a lot of interest in the global business scape because of increasing workforce diversity in the organizations and the challenges posed by such a diversified group which mans the organizations. It is a challenge for behavioral specialists to leverage the workforce diversity in their favor by utilizing their creativity for product and service development.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        4. TYPES OF GROUPS<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        In the organizational structure , the Groups can be either formal or informal depending upon their<\/strong> nature.<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The Formal groups <\/strong>are those which are defined by the organization\u2019s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks where; the behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. E.g. an airline flight crew is an example of a formal group.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The Informal groups <\/strong>can be referred to as alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined where; Natural formations in the work environment are in response to the need for social contact. e.g. Three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The formal groups can be further classified as command groups and task groups<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The Command groups <\/strong>are dictated by the formal organization where the organization chart determines a command group.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The Task groups <\/strong>are organizationally determined and represent those working together to complete a job task. A task group\u2019s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. For instance, if a college student is accused of a campus crime, it may require communication and coordination among the dean of academic affairs, the dean of students, the registrar, the director of security, and the student\u2019s advisor. All command groups are also task groups, but the reverse need not be true.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The informal groups can be further classified as interest groups and Friendship\u00a0\u00a0 groups .<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        An interest group <\/strong>is where People affiliate to attain a specific social objective with which each is concerned.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Friendship groups <\/strong>often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age or ethnic heritage. The Informal groups satisfy their members\u2019 social needs.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Type of Work groups in formal groups<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Group types are routinely distinguished by the work that the groups do, they can be any one of the following ;<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Production groups <\/strong>consist of front line employees who produce some tangible output. Autonomous production groups are self-directed or self-managing while semi-autonomous production groups typically have a dedicated supervisor who oversees all operations.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Service groups <\/strong>consist of employees that work with customers on a repeated basis, such as airline teams, maintenance groups, sales groups, call centre\u2019s, etc.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Management groups <\/strong>consist of an executive or senior manager along with managers that report directly to him\/her. Management groups are often able to organize themselves towards goals such as policy making, budgeting, staffing, and planning.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Project groups <\/strong>are generally cross-function groups of individuals brought together for the duration of a specific, time-limited project. Project groups are usually disbanded once the project is complete.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Action and performing groups <\/strong>are groups that typically consist of expert specialists who conduct complex, time-limited performance events. Examples include musical bands, military crews, surgery teams, rescue units or professional music groups.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Advisory groups <\/strong>consist of employees that work outside of, but parallel with, production processes. Examples include quality circles, selection committees, or other advisory groups pulled together to make recommendations to an organization.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        5.\u00a0 <\/strong>INTERGROUP DYNAMICS AND BEHAVIOUR<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Intergroup behaviour, or the way groups interact with other groups, is best examined in terms of the frequency and interaction type the groups engage in. Thomas (1976) elaborated on this concept by noting that the nature of intergroup interactions depends largely on the degree to which groups must interact to achieve their goals, and the degree of compatibility between the goals of different groups. Intergroup dynamics and behavior can take any of the following connotations.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Accommodation <\/strong>interaction is based on groups having similar goals and taking part in minimal to moderate mutual concession and cooperation to achieve them.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Avoidance <\/strong>interaction is found between groups where there are different or conflicting goals and even minimal collaboration is not warranted. Both of these interactions are viewed as having no to low impact on successfully achieving each group’s goals.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Collaboration <\/strong>interaction is necessary when the goals of two groups are largely compatible and partnership is required for successful goal accomplishment.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Competition <\/strong>interaction usually occurs when two groups must interact to meet specific goals that are vastly incompatible.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Compromise <\/strong>interaction occurs when two groups have a moderate need to interact to meet specific goals that are moderately compatible. In this interaction, the two groups may work together on a semi-regular basis to ensure they are on track to meet the overlapping goals.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        De individuation <\/strong>is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals of a group become less aware of their values.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Diffusion of responsibility <\/strong>is the tendency for group members to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when surrounded by others who are behaving in a similar manner.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Intergroup behavior is influenced by factors beyond interaction types. Examples of these include Interdependence, Organizational Culture, Past History, and Organizational Social Networks.<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Interdependence <\/strong>is the degree to which group depend on each other and is determined by the type of group tasks (i.e., simple versus complex), organization structure, and the organizational authority system). Interdependence may occur in one of three common forms:<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        o Pooled interdependence:<\/strong> The combined efforts of largely separate groups positively contribute to the organization.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        o Sequential interdependence:<\/strong> The effort or output of one group is used as the input for another group.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        o Reciprocal interdependence:<\/strong> A series of mutual exchanges between groups, requiring a high degree of continuous interactions.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Organizational culture <\/strong>and its shared norms, values, and power structure, often dictate the frequency and degree to which intergroup interactions and collaborations occur.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Past history with intergroup relationships <\/strong>also impact interdependence behaviour. The influence of this factor is directly connected to the past interaction experience between groups. Whether the interaction was positive or negative, new group members may be influenced in the direction of the group’s previous experience.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Social networks in organizations <\/strong>are another vital factor when considering intergroup behaviour. Cordial individual group member interaction is believed to greatly impact the quality of intergroup relationships.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        5.1 INTERGROUP CONFLICT<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Intergroup conflict may be caused by competition for resources, goal incompatibility, time incompatibility, and contentious influence tactics. There are activities that organizations can participate in to reduce or prevent competition between groups.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Resources: <\/strong>Resources (e.g., budgets, personnel, physical space) are generally limited within organizations so that competition for resources between groups is often unavoidable.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Goal Incompatibility: <\/strong>Goal incompatibility occurs when the goals of two or more groups are in direct opposition such that one group achieves its goal while the other group cannot meet their goal. Goal incompatibility may be distinguished between real goal incompatibility and perceived goal incompatibility.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Time Incompatibility: <\/strong>Work groups perform different tasks, have different goals, and interact with different customers, such that groups operate under different deadlines.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Contentious Influence Tactics: <\/strong>Contentious influence tactics (e.g., threats, demands, and other negative behaviour) may be used to try to influence members of another group, creating cycles of retaliation and influencing opinions of those within their own group (e.g., bad reputations).<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        5.2 CONSEQUENCES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Effects related to conflict between groups may be either negative or positive.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Group members’ perceptions of one another change in a negative manner where a distinction is made between “in-group” and “out-group”.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Members of groups in conflict develop an “us versus them” mentality and view members of the other group as fundamentally different from themselves but similar to each other.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Group members become more cohesive to compete against a “common enemy”.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Quality of intergroup interactions (e.g., communication) may decline among groups in conflict, which in turn may decrease the quality of work.<\/span><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Negative perceptions of the other group may be transferred to incoming group members. Conflict may create discrepancies between the goals of the group and the goals of the\u00a0<\/span>organization.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        5.3 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The quality of intergroup relations can be improved by introducing super ordinate goals, negotiation, member exchanges, intergroup team development, Reducing the need for intergroup interaction and ensuring that the resource allocation process is fair and equitable to all the members in the organization.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Super ordinate goals <\/strong>are goals that are approved by all groups and that may require the groups to interact in a cooperative manner to achieve the goals (e.g., produce a product, prepare a report, and complete a service to customers). Super ordinate goals may also be used to create a “common enemy” that increases the cohesion among group members to defeat the enemy<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Negotiation <\/strong>may facilitate communication of issues that cause conflict between groups so that groups can form a resolution suitable to everyone. Principled negotiation<\/em> is a style of negotiation where members try to problem-solve until they reach a resolution, rather than focus on individual positions. (Fischer and Ury, 1981)<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Member exchanges <\/strong>allow group members to exchange roles with those of the other group members.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        These exchanges are intended to provide a new perspective.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Intergroup Team Development <\/strong>may be used to improve relations for members within the same group or between groups. One intervention developed by Blake, Shephard, and Mouton (1964) has members of both groups generate one list about how the group perceives the other group and one list that describes how they think the other group describes them. The groups share the lists to reduce misperceptions.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Reducing the need for intergroup interaction <\/strong>may be necessary for work groups that cannot work well together. A “coordinating group” may be used as an intermediary between groups so that each group would communicate through the “coordinating group”. Organizations may create slack resources by adding additional inventory so that groups do not have to interact as frequently. Organizations may also reduce task interdependence between those groups that function under different time frames and deadlines (i.e., physically separate the groups).<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The resource allocation process should be fair<\/strong> so that all groups have access to the process and political considerations between groups are minimized. Organizations should first reexamine the process to determine that groups have the resources needed to be effective.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        6. TASK AND MAINTAINANACE FUNCTIONS OF GROUPS<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Whatever the type of group, a formal one or an informal one, it needs to perform its designated functions in an effective and efficient manner. More importantly every group needs to perform task functions for the successful performance of the work or the tasks and maintenance functions for ensuring the satisfaction of the members and inculcating team spirit in them. The performance of these functions enables the group members to enjoy the social benefits of psychological intimacy and integrated\u00a0involvement. Lets us find out what are the various task and maintenance functions of the groups as delineated below<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        The Task Related Functions<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Those activities which are directly related to the effective completion of the teams\u2019 task are called task functions which involves;<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Initiating activities like suggesting newer ideas, defining the problems crisply and in unambiguous terms, proposing the alternative solutions to the problems etc.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The task of Seeking information involves asking for ideas, suggestions, information or various facts related to the task which would help in its successful completion.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Giving the relevant information<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Elaborating the various concepts which may not be clear to the group members<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Coordinating the various activities of the group members and ensuring there is no overlapping in the tasks<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Summarizing the ideas given by the members and reaching to some logical conclusions Testing the ideas by trying and applying them<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Evaluating the effectiveness of the ideas<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Diagnosing the problems if any in the tasks and rectifying them<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The Maintenance Related Functions<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        These functions could be more important than the task functions as these help in creating a warm comfortable and friendly environment in the group. It enhances the satisfaction level of the group members and improves the interpersonal relations and bonding. The group which takes the pains together sticks together and helps the members in overcoming the obstacles more effectively than a non cohesive group. These functions could be ;<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Supporting the members come what may<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Following other members lead can prove to be as important as being a leader<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Gate keeping the communication by balancing the contributions from all members, this is important because the journey to the achievement of the tasks is usually replete with anxieties and tensions which needs to be taken care of for the smooth functioning of the group.it is essential that all the negative and destructive energies are nipped at the bud.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Setting high and reasonable standards of performance for the group Allowing the group members to express themselves freely<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Testing the group decisions Consensus testing<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Harmonizing conflicting situations Reducing tensions<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        o It is needless to mention that both task and maintenance functions are absolutely necessary for the successful completion of the given and desired tasks by the groups.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

         <\/p>\n

        7. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP EFFECTIVENESS<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Though there are a number of factors which might influence the effectiveness of the groups, but some the most prominent factors could be the structure of the team or the group, the work team processes. Apart from these two factors other factors which are gaining importance in the global workplace of today are the workforce diversity and creativity which have significant and visible impact on the functioning and outcomes of the group. Lets discuss them one by one in brief.<\/span><\/p>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Work Team\/Group Structure<\/p>\n

        2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Work Team Processes<\/p>\n

        3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Diversity<\/p>\n

        4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Creativity<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        1.\u00a0 <\/strong>The Work Team\/Group Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The first and the most important dimension of ensuring group effectiveness is to have a well defined and structured work group , encompassing the following four things;<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        a)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Goals and Objectives, clearly outlining what is to be achieved.<\/p>\n

        b)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Operating Guidelines, which sets the organizational boundaries and decision making limits within which the group has<\/p>\n

        to operate.<\/p>\n

        c)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Performance Measures ,to be applied for evaluating the group performance<\/p>\n

        d)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Role Specifications for the individual executives and the whole group should be very clearly delineated and<\/p>\n

        disseminated through out the group to enable them to coordinate activities with each other in a more effective and efficient<\/p>\n

        manner. This would also include information with regard to the role behaviors required of the executives. The expectations of<\/p>\n

        the group with regard to the performance outcomes should also be clearly outlined in the role specifications.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        2. Work Team Processes<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The second important dimension of ensuring group effectiveness is to have a well defined Work Team Processes, encompassing the two process issues;<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        a) Managing of cooperative behaviors ; which includes open communication, trust faith, interdependence of group members, personal integrity and mutual support amongst the members.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        b) Managing of competitive behaviors ; enjoying and encouraging the spirit of healthy competition amongst members, disseminating correct information with regard to the presence of competition .<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Both these behaviors are not only necessary but absolutely essential for the achievement of the tasks. Hence they should be viewed as complimentary to each other. It has been shown in one research that the\u00a0presence of competitive rewards enhanced the speed of performance and the presence of cooperative rewards enhanced the accuracy of performance.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

         <\/p>\n

        3.\u00a0 Diversity<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Today\u2019s organizations are in stark contrast to the earlier organizations where workforce diversity was hardly visible. On the other hand workforce diversity is the hallmark of today\u2019s organizations where diversity in terms of ethnicity, gender, culture is clearly visible. A diverse workforce can nevertheless prove to be quite beneficial to the organization as it will have diversity of knowledge skills and abilities to contribute to the organizations goals and objectives. It has been found that the members of a diversified group usually exhibit one of the five basic styles which are good for the group effort.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        These are: The contributor, The collaborator, The communicator, The challenger <\/strong>and The integrator.<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The contributor; <\/strong>who is data driven and justifies everything with facts and figures and believes in taking a rational informed decision by adhering to high standards of performance<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The collaborator <\/strong>; is the one who enables everybody in the organization to be focused on the achievement of the desired mission and purpose .<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The communicator<\/strong>; is the one who listens to every member well, facilitates the groups processes and humanizes the collective efforts of the group members.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The challenger <\/strong>; is the one who acts like a devil\u2019s advocate in the group and does not hesitate in questioning everything and every member with regard to every issue ranging from the purpose to the mission to the methodologies to even the ethical standards of the group.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        The integrator; <\/strong>is the one who ensures that the conflicts and problems of cross functional and diverse teams are sorted out and do not hamper the groups productivity and efficiency.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        4. Creativity<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Though creativity is increasingly viewed as an individual strait, research has shown that most of the product developments have taken place due to team creativity. It is because of the diversified groups and teams that the groups are able to deliver above average and sometime s extraordinary performance. In fact Leigh Thompson feels that creativity can be enhanced in the organizations by ensuring greater diversity in teams.<\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        8. SUMMARY<\/strong><\/p>\n

         <\/p>\n

        Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups\u2014those defined by the organization\u2019s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks, Informal groups can be referred to as alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined .It is possible to sub-classify groups as command, task, interest, or friendship groups. The various Types of Work groups in formal groups can be Production groups ,Service groups ,Management groups ,Project groups ,Action and performing groups and Advisory groups .Intergroup behavior can assume different platforms like Accommodation, Avoidance, Collaboration, Competition , Compromise ,De individuation and . Interdependence which may be either Pooled interdependence, Sequential interdependence or Reciprocal interdependence\u00a0Intergroup conflict may be caused by competition for resources, goal incompatibility, time incompatibility, and contentious influence tactics. There are activities that organizations can participate in to reduce or prevent competition between groups. Effects related to conflict between groups may be either negative or positive. The quality of intergroup relations can be improved by introducing super ordinate goals, negotiation ,member exchanges ,intergroup team development and reducing the need for intergroup interaction .Whatever the type of group, a formal one or an informal one, it needs to perform its designated functions in an effective and efficient manner. More importantly every group needs to perform task functions for the successful performance of the work or the tasks and maintenance functions for ensuring the satisfaction of the members and inculcating team spirit in them. Though there are a number of factors which might influence the effectiveness of the groups, but some the most prominent factors could be the structure of the team or the group, the work team processes. Apart from these two factors other factors which are gaining importance in the global workplace of today are the workforce diversity and creativity which have significant and visible impact on the functioning and outcomes of the group.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        Learn More:<\/strong><\/p>\n

          \n
        • L.M. Prasad, Management Process and Organizational, Sultan Chand & Sons.<\/li>\n
        • Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Concepts,<\/em> Prentice Hall, India Gary Desslar, <\/span>Organization Theories,<\/em> Prentice Hall, India<\/span><\/li>\n
        • P.G. Aquinas, “Organisational Behaviour<\/em> “, Excel Books, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n
        • Argyris C. (1962) “Interpersonal competence and Organisational Effectiveness<\/em>, Irwin, Homewood III Ashburner L. (1990) <\/span>“Impact of Technological and Organizational Change<\/em> Personnel Review U.K. Bernard M. Bass and Edward C. Ryterband (1979) <\/span>“Organizational Psychology”,<\/em> (2nd Ed) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.<\/span><\/li>\n
        • Boss R. W. (1989) “Organizational development in Health care”,<\/em> Addison-Wesley Mass; Reading. French W . and Bell C. (1978) <\/span>“Organisation development<\/em> “, (2nd Edition) Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs N.J.<\/span><\/li>\n
        • George J.M. (1990), \u201cPersonality Effect, and Behaivour in Groups\u201d, Journal of Applied\u00a0 Psychology, Vol.75.<\/li>\n
        • Marvin D. Dunnette (1976), \u201cHandbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology\u201d, Rand McNally, Chicago.<\/li>\n
        • Marvin E. Shaw (1981), \u201cGroup Dynamics : The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour\u201d, (3rd Ed.) McGraw Hill, New York.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":23,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["prof-geeta-bansal"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[60],"license":[],"class_list":["post-198","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-prof-geeta-bansal"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/198","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/198\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":203,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/198\/revisions\/203"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/198\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=198"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=198"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=198"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/mgmtp13\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=198"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}