23 Investigator Phase

Dr. Sudhanshu Joshi

Introduction

IT plays a vital role in most organizations. There has been a realization over the past few years that IT is not some kind of standalone support service but more often an integral part of the business offerings and structure. There has to be a complete alignment between IT and the business. This needs to start at the top and percolate its way vertically and horizontally through the business sure.

Successfully implementing an IT strategy requires an organization and governance model tailored to the IT strategy. We help support IT strategy execution by designing the right models, decision-making processes, incentives, and metrics.

The aim of the this module is to –

(1) To understand the importance of Information System;

(2) To understand the various phase of Software development;

(3) To develop a model that can be used to measure MIS performance; and

(4) categorize, synthesize, and analyze the MIS performance

Information System Performance

Measurements of information system performance are of great significance to organizational strategy for a number of reasons. First, in many industries the proper management of an information system is the key factor in achieving sustainable competitive advantage. Secondly, technological innovations can contribute to changing the industry structure or can create new industries (Lucas, 1975; Markus, 1983; 1984). Most leading corporations have succeeded by exploiting unique technological advantages that allowed them to reshape an old industry or create a new one. Finally, technology is a most pervasive activity. Innovation and technological change are not only strategically relevant in dealing with the technologies associated with the products, but they also affect all managerial activities and functions. Perhaps none of the existing technologies can match the potential impact that information systems have in reshaping industry structure and in transforming the nature of businesses and firms. We are living in the information revolution, where computer and communication technologies are affecting every facet of our society (Alter, 1976; Edstrom, 1977; Ginzberg, 1981a; Lucas, 1976; Nichols, 1981; Schmitt, 1978; Zmud and Cox, 1979).

Assessing the information system function within organizations has been identified as one of the most critical issues of information system management. Despite the importance of the subject to both executive management and information systems professionals, not much progress has been made in the assessment of information system performance.

Importance of Information Systems

In order to have a viable information system that is responsive to a variety of information needs, all the measurable data pertaining to the organization must be organized in such a manner that it can readily be recorded, stored, processed, retrieved, and communicated as required by a variety of users. Conceptually, information system converts raw data into either a consumable report or input for a later phase of the processing cycle. Figure 22.1 depicts the Inter-disciplinary relevance of MIS.

Figure 3-1 depicts the Inter-disciplinary relevance of MIS (Source: Nolan and Wetherbe, 1980).

Components of Management Information System

Various Components of Management Information System includes, people, equipment, procedures, objectives, communications media, dynamics, database, input, output, limitations, and control. Each of these components is discussed below (Alexander, M. 1974; Alter, S. 1992).

4.1. PEOPLE

The most important component of any information system is people. People recognize the need for a new system, develop the system and implement it. The need for any business system springs from the problems and requirements of people within the business and should achieve the results they desire. Because business problems infringe on organizational lines and departmental jurisdiction, the people involved in system development should come from all departments and levels of an organization. They should act as an integrated team to achieve the result desired.

4.2. EQUIPMENT

The equipment involved in an information system includes far more than the computer and associated peripherals or auxiliaries. In the broad system sense, the term “equipment” includes all the devices and the machines that contribute to a stipulated end result Equipment may include factory production units, typewriters, delivery vehicles, and things such as training equipment, directly related to achieving system objectives.

4.3. PROCEDURE

By definition, a system’s structure presupposes that something will be done, according to set methods, with the information entered into the system. Procedures are all the methods necessary to accomplish the objectives of a system, whether they are manual or mechanical. In more technical terminology, procedures are the processes, which combine and manipulate input and database content to achieve specified results or output. Procedures must be established to deal with both routine and anticipated non-routine occurrences. Procedures may include programming, system design, equipment setup, calculation, printing, clerical operations, and many types of automated and man-machine interactions.

4.4. UNIFIED PURPOSE OR OBJECTIVES

Essential to every system is a specific purpose and a set of objectives. In dealing with complex systems, it is necessary to state these objectives formally, and to clearly define the specific results to be achieved. The more precisely system objectives are stated, the more effective will be their implementation. Conversely, when the statement of objectives is vaguer, the number of assumptions made will be greater and a system development is less likely to meet the “needs” which initiated the development effort.

4.5. COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Communication Media Clear communication is essential both internally and externally for a comprehensive system to function effectively. A system must be capable of receiving communicated information at its point of inception. Communication is also essential between participants and, as required, between equipment elements. The end product or output of a system must also be communicated. The results of communication should be capable of altering the course of activities or events. Information can be communicated in a variety of forms, using any acceptable medium for making the facts or conditions known. For example, system outputs can be communicated via print or type, spoken word, signals, bells, alarms, lights, or any other comprehensible medium which provides a satisfactory interface from and to the “outside” world relative to the system.

6.DYNAMIC NATURE

A system should be able to withstand and adapt to planned or predicted changes in environment or internal conditions and functions. The term “dynamic” reflects the ability of a system to alter itself or to be altered readily. Requirements for system revision may be environmental, resulting from changes in laws, regulations, climate, geography, or population size, or internal, reflecting the addition of new equipment, setting of new objectives, management decisions, changes in personnel, and so on.

DATABASES

A database is a logically organized arrangement of semi-permanent, fairly frequently accessed information, which can be made available in one or both of the following ways: -Manually accessed, as is done with filing cabinets.

-Mechanically or electronically accessed, as is done to a computer file.

An information processing system must be able to respond to and utilize data source facts represented in system compatible form, which are either entered externally or generated within the system itself. The composite data to which a system has access in the routine performance of its mission are generally known as the database. On occasion, the database can provide input to the system. However, definite distinctions exist between input items and items within a system’s database. Generally, input tends to contain newly created transaction or transitory type of information. A database, on the other hand, consists of information of a reusable and a more static nature. For example, an input document for a long-distance telephone information system might indicate that a telephone subscriber in New York (212) had placed a call to Los Angeles (213) and talked for 5 minutes. The telephone numbers, area codes, and length of call would be input data (captured at the time of occurrence). But applicable rates, whether recorded manually or by a computer, would come from the database. Furthermore, the toll for the call would be incorporated within the data base files for customer billing and possible later reference in answering inquiries.

INPUT

“Input”, a term already used above, refers to all the external events and generated information relevant to the system. Input is more than the specific items fed to a computer; it covers all external stimuli associated with the system. The input process, in turn, calls for the coding and or formatting of such stimuli for recognition and response by the system. However, the emphasis in identifying and evaluating input should be on the source, rather than on any intermediate processes involved in formatting, coding, or transmission.

22.3 Various Stages of Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of system development life cycle in detail.

22.3.1 System Study:

Preliminary system study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This is a brief investigation of the system under consideration and gives a clear picture of what actually the physical system is? In practice, the initial system study involves the preparation of a System proposal which lists the Problem Definition, Objectives of the Study, Terms of reference for Study, Constraints, Expected benefits of the new system, etc. in the light of the user requirements. The system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the system) and places it before the user management. The management may accept the proposal and the cycle proceeds to the next stage. The management may also reject the proposal or request some modifications in the proposal. In summary, we would say that system study phase passes through the following steps:

problem identification and project initiation background analysis inference or findings

22.3.2. Feasibility Study

In case the system proposal is acceptable to the management, the next phase is to examine the feasibility of the system. The feasibility study is basically the test of the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user’s requirements, effective use of resources and of course, the cost effectiveness. These are categorized as technical, operational, economic, schedule and social feasibility. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy to find the Return on Investment (ROI). This also defines the resources needed to complete the detailed investigation. The result is a feasibility report submitted to the management. This may be accepted or accepted with modifications or rejected. In short, following decision are taken in different feasibility study:

(a). Economic feasibility – The likely benefits outweigh the cost of solving the problem which is generally demonstrated by a cost/ benefit analysis.

(b).Operational feasibility – Whether the problem can be solved in the user’s environment with existing and proposed system workings?

(c).Organizational feasibility – Whether the proposed system is consistent with the organization’s strategic objectives?

(d).Technical feasibility – Whether the problem be solved using existing technology and resources available?

(e).Social feasibility – Whether the problem be solved without causing any social issues?

Whether the system will be acceptable to the society?

22.3.3. Detailed System Study

The detailed investigation of the system is carried out in accordance with the objectives of the proposed system. This involves detailed study of various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the system. During this process, data are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used for detailed system study. Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system under consideration:

(i) Keeping in view the problems and new requirements;

(ii) Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system

All the data and the findings must be documented in the form of detailed data flow diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specifications. It includes planning for the new system, analysis of requirement, system constraints, functions and proposed system architecture, prototype of the proposed system and its analysis.

22.3.4. System Analysis

Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes involved, identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving the system functioning. This involves studying the business processes, gathering operational data, understand the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and evolving solutions for overcoming the weaknesses of the system so as to achieve the organizational goals. System Analysis also includes subdividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes.

The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business process:

What is being done?

How is it being done?

Who is doing it?

When is he doing it? Why is it being done?

How can it be improved?

It is more of a thinking process and involves the creative skills of the System Analyst. It attempts to give birth to a new efficient system that satisfies the current needs of the user and has scope for future growth within the organizational constraints. The result of this process is a logical system design. System analysis is an iterative process that continues until a preferred and acceptable solution emerges.

22.3.4 System Design

Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new system, the new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most crucial phase in the development of a system. The logical system design arrived at as a result of system analysis and is converted into physical system design. In the design phase the SDLC process continues to move from thewhat questions of the analysis phase to the how . The logical design produced during the analysis is turned into a physical design – a detailed description of what is needed to solve original problem. Input, output, databases, forms, codification schemes and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the hardware and software platform in which the new system will run are also decided. Data structure, control process, equipment source, workload and limitation of the system, Interface, documentation, training, procedures of using the system, taking backups and staffing requirement are decided at this stage.

There are several tools and techniques used for describing the system design of the system. These tools and techniques are: Flowchart, Data flow diagram (DFD), Data dictionary, Structured English, Decision table and Decision tree which will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson.

22.3.5 Coding

The system design needs to be implemented to make it a workable system. his demands the coding of design into computer language, i.e., programming language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the program specifications into computer instructions, which we refer to as programs. It is an important stage where the defined procedures are transformed into control specifications by the help of a computer language. The programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. A well written code reduces the testing and maintenance effort. It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and future changes, if required. Programming tools like compilers, interpreters and language like c, c++, and java etc., are used for coding .with respect to the type of application. The right programming language should be chosen.

22.3.6 Testing

Before actually implementing the new system into operations, a test run of the system is done removing all the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should match the expected results. Sometimes, system testing is considered as a part of implementation process. Using the test data following test run are carried out:

Program test System test

(I)Program test : When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared test data. All verification and validation be checked and any undesirable happening must be noted and debugged (error corrected).

(ii)System Test : After carrying out the program test for each of the programs of the system and errors removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is analyzed. During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected output of the system. In such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and further tested for the expected output. All independent modules be brought together and all the interfaces to be tested between multiple modules, the whole set of software is tested to establish that all modules work together correctly as an application or system or package.

When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own actual data so that the system could be shown running as per their requirements.

22.3.7 Implementation

After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins. Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. The major steps involved in this phase are:

Acquisition and Installation of Hardware and Software Conversion

User Training Documentation

The hardware and the relevant software required for running the system must be made fully operational before implementation. The conversion is also one of the most critical and expensive activities in the system development life cycle. The data from the old system needs to be converted to operate in the new format of the new system. The database needs to be setup with security and recovery procedures fully defined.

During this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user’s computer. After loading the system, training of the user starts. Main topics of such type of training are:

How to execute the package? How to enter the data?

How to process the data (processing details)? How to take out the reports?

After the users are trained about the computerized system, working has to shift from manual to computerized working. The process is called Changeover. The following strategies are followed for changeover of the system.

1. Direct Changeover: This is the complete replacement of the old system by the new system. It is a risky approach and requires comprehensive system testing and training.

2.Parallel run : In parallel run both the systems, i.e., computerized and manual, are executed simultaneously for certain defined period. The same data is processed by both the systems. This strategy is less risky but more expensive because of the following facts:

Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized system. The operational work is doubled.

Failure of the computerised system at the early stage does not affect the working of the organization, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.

(iii) Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is run with the data from one or more of the previous periods for the whole or part of the system. The results are compared with the old system results. It is less expensive and risky than parallel run approach. This strategy builds the confidence and the errors are traced easily without affecting the operations.

The documentation of the system is also one of the most important activity in the system development life cycle. This ensures the continuity of the system. Generally following two types of documentations are prepared for any system.

User or Operator Documentation System Documentation

User Documentation: The user documentation is a complete description of the system from the user’s point of view detailing how to use or operate the system. It also includes the major error messages likely to be encountered by the user.

System Documentation: The system documentation contains the details of system design, programs, their coding, system flow, data dictionary, process description, etc. This helps to understand the system and permit changes to be made in the existing system to satisfy new user needs.

22.3.8. Maintenance

Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environments. It must meet the scope of any future enhancement, future functionality and any other added functional features to cope up with the latest future needs. It has been seen that there are always some errors found in the systems that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system from time to time. The review of the system is done for:

knowing the full capabilities of the system
knowing the required changes or the additional requirements
•studying the performance.

If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases. Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) puts emphasis on decision making processes that affect system cost and usefulness. These decisions must be based on full consideration of business processes, functional requirements, and economic and technical feasibility. The primary objectives of any SDLC is to deliver quality system which meets or exceed customer expectations and within cost estimates, work effectively and efficiently within the current and planned infrastructure, and is an inexpensive to maintain. SDLC establishes a logical order of events for conducting system development that is controlled, measured, documented, and ultimately improved. Any software is not all complete and there are enough rooms to add new features to existing software.

22.4. Problem interaction between user and analyst

There exist few reasons to create or modify an information system with regular interaction between user and analyst

In order to affirm the linkage between user and analyst during the investigation phase. Primary investigation takes place

22.4.1. Primary Investigation

Determine exact nature of problem or improvement and whether it is worth pursuing. Findings are presented in feasibility report, also known as a feasibility study.

22.4.2. Detailed Analysis

Systems analysis and design, as performed by systems analysts, seeks to understand what humans need to analyze data input or data flow systematically, process or transform data, store data, and output information in the context of a particular business. Furthermore, systems analysis and design is used to analyze, design, and implement improvements in the support of users and the functioning of businesses that can be accomplished through the use of computerized information systems (Kendell, 2009).

23.4.3. Roles and Responsibilities of System Analysts towards Users

The Information Technology Manager/ System Analyst is responsible for installing and maintaining computer hardware, software and networks.

Scope: (The way that the position contributes to and impacts on the organization). The Information Technology Manager reports to the Senior Administrative Officer and manages and provides hardware and software maintenance, training and consultation, and recommendations about future planning and development of resources. Providing these services in an effective and efficient manner will ensure maximum access to and implementation of technology services and resources.

Resources: (Major responsibilities and target accomplishments expected of the position including the typical problems encountered in carrying out the responsibilities.)

Manage information technology and computer systems.
Plan, organize, direct, control and evaluate the operations of information systems and electronic data processing (EDP).
Develop and implement policies and procedures for electronic data processing and computer systems operations and development.
Meet with managers to discuss system requirements, specifications, costs and timelines
Hire and manage information systems personnel and contractors to design, develop, implement, operate and administer computer and telecommunications software, networks and information systems
Control the computer systems budgets and expenditures
Ensure technology is accessible and equipped with current hardware and software
Troubleshoot hardware, software and network operating system
Be familiar with all hardware and software
Be familiar with network operating system
Provide orientation to new users of existing technology
Train staff about potential uses of existing technology
Train staff about new and potential use
Provide individual training and support on request
Provide recommendations about accessing information and support
Maintain current and accurate inventory of technology hardware, software and resources.

The systems analyst systematically assesses how users interact with technology and businesses function by examining the inputting and processing of data and the outputting of information with the intent of improving organizational processes. Many improvements involve better support of users’ work tasks and business functions through the use of computerized information systems. This definition emphasizes a systematic, methodical approach to analyzing—and potentially improving—what is occurring in the specific context experienced by users and created by a business.

Various Roles that System Analysts do towards Users are as:

(a). System Analysts as Consultant: The systems analyst frequently acts as a systems consultant to humans and their businesses and, thus, may be hired specifically to address information systems issues within a business. Such hiring can be an advantage because outside consultants can bring with them a fresh perspective that other people in an organization do not possess. It also means that outside analysts are at a disadvantage because the true organizational culture can never be known to an outsider.As an outside consultant, you will rely heavily on the systematic methods discussed throughout this text to analyze and design appropriate information systems for users working in a particular business. In addition, you will rely on information systems users to help you understand the organizational culture from others’ viewpoints.

(b). System Analyst as Supporting Expert: Another role that you may be required to play is that of supporting expert within a business for which you are regularly employed in some systems capacity. In this role the analyst draws on professional expertise concerning computer hardware and software and their uses in the business. This work is often not a full-blown systems project, but rather it entails a small modification or decision affecting a single department. As the support expert, you are not managing the project; you are merely serving as a resource for those who are. If you are a systems analyst employed by a manufacturing or service organization, many of your daily activities may be encompassed by this role.

(c). System Analyst as Agent of Change: The most comprehensive and responsible role that the systems analyst takes on is that of an agent of change, whether internal or external to the business. As an analyst, you are an agent of change whenever you perform any of the activities in the systems development life cycle (discussed in the next section) and are present and interacting with users and the business for an extended period (from two weeks to more than a year). An agent of change can be defined as a person who serves as a catalyst for change, develops a plan for change, and works with others in facilitating that change. Your presence in the business changes it. As a systems analyst, you must recognize this fact and use it as a starting point for your analysis. Hence, you must interact with users and management (if they are not one and the same) from the very beginning of your project. Without their help you cannot understand what they need to support their work in the organization, and real change cannot take place. If change (that is, improvements to the business that can be realized through information systems) seems warranted after analysis, the next step is to develop a plan for change along with the people who must enact the change. Once a consensus is reached on the change that is to be made, you must constantly interact with those who are changing. As a systems analyst acting as an agent of change, you advocate a particular avenue of change involving the use of information systems. You also teach users the process of change, because changes in the information system do not occur independently but cause changes in the rest of the organization as well.

(d). Qualities of the Systems Analyst: From the foregoing descriptions of the roles the systems analyst plays, it is easy to see that the successful systems analyst must possess a wide range of qualities. Many different kinds of people are systems analysts, so any description is destined to fall short in some way. There are some qualities, however, that most systems analysts seem to display. Above all, the analyst is a problem solver. He or she is a person who views the analysis of problems as a challenge and who enjoys devising workable solutions. When necessary, the analyst must be able to systematically tackle the situation at hand through skillful application of tools, techniques, and experience. The analyst must also be a communicator capable of relating meaningfully to other people over extended periods of time. Systems analysts need to be able to understand humans’ needs in interacting with technology, and they need enough computer experience to program, to understand the capabilities of computers, to glean information requirements from users, and to communicate what is needed to programmers.

23.4.4. Incorporating Human- Computer Interaction (HCI) during SDLC

In recent times, evolvement of Human- Computer Interaction become an important area of research and discussion for System Analyst. HCI as the “aspect of a computer that enables communications and interactions between humans and the computer. It is the layer of the computer that is between humans and the computer” (Zhang, Carey, Te’eni, & Tremaine, 2005). Analysts using an HCI approach are emphasizing people rather than the work to be done or the IT that is involved. Their approach to a problem is multifaceted, looking at the “human ergonomic, cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors involved in user tasks, problem solving processes and interaction context” (Zhang, Carey,Te’eni, & Tremaine, 2005). Human computer interaction moves away from focusing first on organizational and system needs and instead concentrates on human needs.Analysts adopting HCI principles examine a variety of user needs in the context of humans interacting with information.

Definitions:

Systems analyst

A systems analyst researches problems, plans solutions, recommends software and systems, and coordinates development to meet business or other requirements. They will be familiar with a variety of programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms. Because they often write user requests into technical specifications, the systems analysts are the liaisons between vendors and information technology professionals. (Boland et al., 1976).

Interaction

Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences. (Boland et al., 1976).

Information system

An information system (IS) – or application landscape – is any combination of information technology and people’s activities that support operations, management and decision making. In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, processes, data and technology

(Macwilliam, 2005)

User (computing)

A user is an agent, either a human agent (end-user) or software agent, who uses a computer or network service. A user often has a user account and is identified by a username (also user name). Other terms for username include login name, screen name (also screenname), nickname (also nick), or handle, which is derived from the identical Citizen’s Band radio term. (Macwilliam, 2005)

Progress Check Points

Question 1: Explain various stages of Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

Question 2: Why Investigation Phase plays a vital role in SDLC. Explain various processes within the phase.

Question3: How commercial functional software quality ensure their productivity?

References:

Abad, J., Dalmau, I., Vilajosana, J., 2014. Taxonomic proposal for integration levels of management systems based on empirical evidence and derived corporate benefits. J. Clean. Prod. 78, 164e173.
Abraham, M., Crawford, J., Carter, D., Mazotta, F., 2000. Management decisions for effective ISO 9000 accreditation. Manag. Decis. 38 (3), 182e193.
AENOR, 2005. UNE 66177 Sistemas de gestion. Guía para la integraci on de los sis- temas de gestion. Asociaci on Espa nola de Normalizaci ~ on y Certi ficacion, Madrid, Spain.
Al-Tuwaijri, S., Christensen, T., Hughes, K., 2004. The relations among environmental disclosure, environmental performance, and economic performance: a simultaneous equations approach. Accounting, Organ. Soc. 29, 447e471.
Ann, G., Zailani, S., Wahid, N., 2006. A study on the impact of environmental management system (EMS) certification towards firms’ performance in Malaysia. Manag. Environ. Qual. 17, 73e93.
Ansoff, I., 1965. Corporate Strategy. McGraw Hill Inc., US. Arauz, R., Suzuki, H., 2004. ISO 9000 performance in Japanese industries. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 15 (1), 3e33.
Asif, M., Bruijn, E., Fisscher, O., Searcy, C., Steenhuis, H., 2009. Process embedded design of integrated management systems. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 26 (3), 261e282.
Barla, P., 2007. ISO 14001 certification and environmental performance in Quebec’s pulp and paper industry. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 53, 291e306.
Beckmerhagen, I., Berg, H., Karapetrovic, S., Willborn, W., 2003. Integration of management systems: focus on safety in the nuclear industry. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 20 (2), 210e228.
Benner, M.J., Veloso, F.M., 2008. ISO 9000 practices and financial performance: a technology coherence perspective. J. Oper. Manag. 26, 611e629.
Bernardo, M., Casadesus, M., Karapetrovic, S., Heras, I., 2009. How integrated are environmental, quality and other standardized management systems? An empirical study. J. Clean. Prod. 17 (8), 742e750.
Bernardo, M., Casadesus, M., Karapetrovic, S., Heras, I., 2010. An empirical study on the integration of management system audits. J. Clean. Prod. 18 (5), 486e495.
Bernardo, M., Casadesus, M., Karapetrovic, S., Heras, I., 2011a. Relationships between the integration of audits and management systems: an empirical study. TQM J. 23 (6), 659e672.
Bernardo, M., Simon, A., Gotzamani, K., Casadesús, M., 2011b. La dimension geo- gr afica de la integracion de sistemas de gesti on. In: XI Congreso Nacional de ACEDE, Barcelona. Septembre 2011.
Bernardo, M., Casadesús, M., Karapetrovic, S., Heras, I., 2012a. Integration of standardized management systems: does the implementation order matter? Int. J. Oper. Manag. 32 (3), 291e307.
Bernardo, M., Casadesus, M., Karapetrovic, S., Heras, I., 2012b. Do integration diffi- culties influence management system integration levels? J. Clean. Prod. 21 (1), 23e33.
Boiral, O., Roy, M.J., 2007. ISO 9000: integration rationales and organizational impacts. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 27, 226e247.
Boiral, O., Sala, J.M., 1998. Environmental management: should industry adopt ISO 14001.Bus. Horizons 41, 57e64.
Braun, B., 2005. Building global institutions: the diffusion of management standards in the world economy e an institutional perspective. In: Alvstam, C.G., Schamp, E.W. (Eds.), Linking Industries across the World. Ashgate, London, pp. 3e27.
Briscoe, J.A., Fawcett, S.E., Todd, R.H., 2005. The implementation and impact of ISO 9000 among small manufacturing enterprises. J. Small Bus. Manag. 43 (3), 309e330.
BSI, 2012. PAS 99 Specification of Common Management System Requirements as a Framework for Integration. British Standards Institution, London, UK.
Can~on, J., Garc es, C., 2006. Repercusi on econ omica de la certi ficacion medi-oambiental ISO 14001.
Cuad. Gest. 6, 45e62. Casadesús, M., Gimenez, G., 2000. The bene fits of the implementation of the ISO 9000 standard: empirical research in 288 Spanish companies. TQM Mag.
12 (6), 432e441. Casadesús, M., Karapetrovic, S., 2005. Has ISO 9000 lost some of its lustre? A longitudinal impact study. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 25 (6), 580e596.
Casadesús, M., Gimenez, G., Heras, I., 2001. Bene fits of ISO 9000 implementation in Spanish industry. Eur. Bus. Rev. 13 (6), 327e335.
Chow-Chua, C., Goh, M., Wan, T.B., 2003. Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance? Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 20 (8), 936e953.
Corbett, C.J., 2006. Global diffusion of ISO 9000 certification through supply chains. Manuf.Serv. Oper. Manag. 8, 330e350.
Corbett, C.J., Kirsch, D.A., 2001. International diffusion of ISO 14000 certification. Prod. Oper. Manag. 10, 327e342.
Corbett, C.J., Montes-Sancho, M.J., Kirsck, D.A., 2005. The financial impact of ISO 9000 certification in the United States: an empirical analysis. Manag. Sci. 51 (7), 1046e1059.
Crowder, M., 2013. Quality standards: integration within a bereavement environment. TQM J.25 (1), 18e28.
Curkovic, S., Sroufe, R., Melnyk, S., 2005. Identifying the factors which affect the decision to attain ISO 14000. Energy 30, 1387e1407.
Dansk Standard, 2005. DS 8001 Ledelsessystemer e Vejledning i opbygning af et integreret ledelsessystem (Copenhagen, Denmark).
de Oliveira, O.J., 2013. Guidelines for the integration of certifiable management systems in industrial companies. J. Clean. Prod. 57, 124e133.
Dick, G.P.M., Heras, I., Casadesús, M., 2008. Shedding light on causation between ISO 9001 and improved business performance. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 28 (7), 687e708.
Douglas, A., Glen, D., 2000. Integrated management systems in small and medium enterprises. Total Qual. Manag. 11 (4), 686e690. Fink, A., 2009. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: from the Internet to Paper. Sage.
Gavronski, I., Ferrer, G., Paiva, E., 2008. ISO 14001 certification in Brazil: motivations and benefits. J. Clean. Prod. 16, 87e94.
Gotzamani, K.D., Tsiotras, G.D., 2002. The true motives behind ISO 9000 certification. Their effect on the overall certification benefits and long term contribution towards TQM. Int. J. Qual.
Reliab. Manag. 19 (2), 151e169. Hamidi, N., Omidvari, M., Meftahi, M., 2012. The effect of integrated management system on safety and productivity indices: case study; Irania cement industries. Saf. Sci. 50, 1180e1189.
Hart, C., 1998. Doing a Literature Review. Sage. Heras, I., Dick, G.P.M., Casadesús, M., 2002. ISO 9000 registration’s impact on sales and profitability. A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 19 (6), 774e791.
Hillary, R., 2004. Environmental management systems and the smaller enterprise. J. Clean.Prod. 12, 561e569.
Holm, T., Vuorisalo, T., Sammalisto, K., 2014. Integrated management systems for enhancing education for sustainable development in universities: a memetic approach. J. Clean. Prod. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.048.
Huarng, F., Chen, Y.T., 2002. Relationships of TQM philosophy, methods and performance: a survey in Taiwan. Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 102, 226e234. ISO, 2008. The Integrated Use of Management System Standards. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland. ISO, 2013. The ISO Survey of Certifications. International Organisation for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Jones, R., Arndt, G., Kustin, R., 1997. ISO 9000 among Australian companies: impact of time and reasons for seeking certification on perceptions of benefits received. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 14 (7), 650e660.
Karapetrovic, S., 2002. Strategies for the integration of management systems and standards.TQM Mag. 14 (1), 61e67.
Karapetrovic, S., 2003. Musings on integrated management systems. Meas. Bus. Excell. 7 (1), 4e13.
Karapetrovic, S., Casadesús, M., 2009. Implementing environmental with other standardized management systems: scope, sequence, time and integration. J. Clean. Prod. 17 (5), 533e540.
Karapetrovic, S., Willborn, W., 1998a. The system’s view for clarification of quality vocabulary.Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 15 (1), 99e120.
Karapetrovic, S., Willborn, W., 1998b. Integration of quality and environmental management systems. TQM Mag. 10 (3), 204e213.
Karapetrovic, S., Willborn, W., 1998c. Integrated audit of management systems. Int. J. Qual.Reliab. Manag. 15 (7), 694e711.
Karapetrovic, S., Casadesús, M., Heras, I., 2006. Dynamics and Integration of Standardized Management Systems. An Empirical Study. Documenta Universitaria. GITASP 1, Girona, Spain.
Karapetrovic, S., Casadesús, M., Heras, I., 2010. What happened to the ISO 9000 lustre? an eight-year study. Total Qual. Manag. 21 (3), 245e267.
Kaynak, H., 2003. The relationship between total quality management practices and their effects on firm performance. J. Oper. Manag. 21, 405e435.
King, A., Lenox, M., 2002. Exploring the locus of profitable pollution reduction. Manag. Sci. 48, 289e299.
Kitazawa, S., Sarkis, J., 2000. The relationship between ISO 14001 and continuous source reduction programs. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 20, 225e248.
Kraus, J., Grosskopf, J., 2008. Auditing integrated management systems: considerations and practice tips. Environ. Qual. Manag. 18 (2), 7e16.
Labodova, A., 2004. Implementing integrated management systems using a risk analysis based approach. J. Clean. Prod. 12 (6), 571e580. 266
Bernardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 94 (2015) 260e267 Lee, T.Y., 1998. The development of ISO 9000 certification and the future of quality management: a survey of certification firms in Hong Kong. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 15, 162e177.
Link, S., Naveh, E., 2006. Standardization and discretion: does the environmental standard ISO 14001 lead to performance benefits? IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag. 53, 508e519.
Lo, L.K., Chang, D.S., 2007. The difference in the perceived benefits between firms that maintain ISO certification and those that do not. Int. J. Prod. Res. 48 (5), 1881e1897.
Lo, C.K.Y., Yeung, A.C.L., Cheng, T.C.E., 2011. Meta-standards, financial performance and senior executive compensation in China: an institutional perspective. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 129, 119e126.
Magd, H., Curry, A., 2003. An empirical analysis of management attitudes towards ISO9001:2000 in Egypt. TQM Mag. 15 (6), 381e390.
Marimon, F., Casadesús, M., Heras, I., 2010. Certi fication intensity level of the leading nations in ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 standards. Int. J. Qual. Reliab.
Manag. 27 (9), 1002e1020. Marimon, F., Llach, J., Bernardo, M., 2011. Comparative analysis of diffusion of the ISO 14001 standard by sector of activity. J. Clean. Prod. 19 (15), 1734e1744.
Martínez-Costa, M., Martínez-Lorente, A.R., Choi, T.Y., 2008. Simultaneous consideration of TQM and ISO 9000 on performance and motivation: an empirical study of Spanish companies. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 113, 23e39.
McAdam, R., McKeown, M., 1999. Life after ISO 9000, an analysis of the impact of ISO 9000 and total quality management on small businesses in Northern Ireland. Total Qual. Manag. 10 (2), 229e241.
Melnyk, S., Sroufe, R., Calantone, R., 2003. Assessing the impact of environmental management systems on corporate and environmental performance. J. Oper.
Manag. 21, 329e351. Mendel, P.J., 2006. The Making and Expansion of International Management Standards: the Global Diffusion of ISO 9000 Quality Management Certificates. Oxford University Press, New York.
Miles, M., Covin, J., 2000. Environmental marketing: a source of reputational, competitive, and financial advantage. J. Bus. Ethics 23, 299e311.
Mokhtar, M.Z., Muda, M.S., 2012. Comparative study on performance measure and attributes between ISO and non-ISO certification companies. Int. J. Bus.
Manag. 7, 185e193. Moneva, J., Ortas, E., 2010. Corporate environmental and financial performance: a multivariate approach. Ind.
Manag. Data Syst. 110, 193e210. Naveh, E., Marcus, A.A., 2004. When does the ISO 9000 quality assurance standard lead to performance improvement? Assimilation and going beyond. IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag. 51, 352e363.
Nield, K., Kozak, M., 1999. Quality certification in the hospitality industry: analyzing the benefits of ISO 9000. Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q. 40, 40e45.
Padma, P., Ganesh, L., Rajendran, C., 2008. A study on the ISO 14000 certification and organizational performance of Indian manufacturing firms. Benchmarking: An Int. J. 15, 73e100.
Pan, J.-N., 2003. A comparative study on motivation for and experience with ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 certification among Far Eastern countries. Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 103 (8), 564e578.
Parast, M.M., Adams, S.G., Jones, E.C., 2011. Improving operational and business performance in the petroleum Industry through quality management. Int. J. Qual.
Reliab. Manag. 28 (4), 426e450. Poksinska, B., Dahlgaard, J., Eklund, J., 2003. Implementing ISO 14000 in Sweden: motives, benefits and comparisons with ISO 9000. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 20, 585e606.
Potoski, M., Prakash, A., 2005. Covenants with weak swords: ISO 14001 and facilities’ environmental performance. J. Policy Anal. Manag. 24, 745e769.
Psomas, E.L., Fotopoulos, C.V., 2009. A meta analysis of ISO 9001:2000 research – findings and future research proposals. Int. J. Qual. Serv. Sci. 1 (2), 128e144.
Rebelo, M.F., Santos, G., Silva, R., 2014. A generic model for integration of quality, environment and safety management systems. TQM J. 26 (2), 143e159.
Rocha, M., Searcy, C., Karapetrovic, S., 2007. Integrating sustainable development into existing management systems. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 18 (1), 83e92.
Rodríguez-Escobar, J.A., Gonzalez-Benito, J., Martínez-Lorente, A.R., 2006. An anal- ysis of the degree of small companies’ dissatisfaction with ISO 9000 certification. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 17 (4), 507e521.
Rondinelli, D., Vastag, G., 2000. Panacea, common sense, or just a label? The value of ISO 14001 environmental management systems. Eur. Manag. J. 18, 499e510.
Russo, M., 2009. Explaining the impact of ISO 14001 on emission performance: a dynamic capabilities perspective on process and learning. Bus. Strategy Environ. 18, 307e319.
SAI Global, 1999. AS/NZS 4581 Management System Integration e Guidance to Business, Government and Community Organizations (Sydney, Australia).
Salomone, R., 2008. Integrated management systems: experiences in Italian organizations. J.Clean. Prod. 16 (16), 1786e1806.
Sampaio, P., Saraiva, P., Rodrigues, A.G., 2009. ISO 9001 certification research: questions, answers and approaches. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 26 (1), 38e58.
Sampaio, P., Saravaia, P., Domingus, P., 2012. Management systems: integration or addition? Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 29 (4), 402e424.
Santos, G., Mendes, F., Barbosa, J., 2011. Certification and integration of management systems: the experience of Portuguese small and medium enterprises. J. Clean. Prod. 19 (17e18), 1965e1974.
Schylander, E., Martinuzzi, A., 2007. ISO 14001 e experiences, effects and future challenges:a national study in Austria. Bus. Strategy Environ. 16, 133e147.
Simon, A., Douglas, A., 2013. Integrating management systems: does the location matter? Int.J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 30 (6), 675e689.
Simon, A., Bernardo, M., Karapetrovic, S., Casadesus, M., 2011. Integration of standardized environmental and quality management systems audits. J. Clean. Prod. 19 (17e18), 2057e2065.
Simon, A., Karapetrovic, S., Casadesus, M., 2012a. Difficulties and benefits of integrated management systems. Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 112 (5), 828e846.
Simon, A., Karapetrovic, S., Casadesus, M., 2012b. Evolution of integrated management systems in Spanish firms. J. Clean. Prod. 23 (1), 8e19.
Simon, A., Yaya, L.H.P., Karapetrovic, S., Casadesus, M., 2014. An empirical analysis of the integration of internal and external management system audits. J. Clean. Prod. 66, 499e506.
Singels, J., Ruel, G., van de Water, H., 2001. ISO 9000 series certi € fication and performance. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 18 (1), 62e75.
Singh, P.J., 2008. Empirical assessment of ISO 9000 related management practices and performance relationships. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 113, 40e59.
Singh, P.J., Feng, M., Smith, A., 2006. ISO 9000 series of standards: comparison of manufacturing and service organisations. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 13 (2), 122e142. Tan, L., 2005. Implementing ISO 14001: is it beneficial for firms in newly industrialized Malaysia? J. Clean. Prod. 13, 397e404.
Tari, J., Molina-Azorin, J., 2010. Integration of quality management and environmental management systems. Similarities and the role of the EFQM model. TQM J. 22 (6), 687e701.
Tari, J.J., Claver-Cortes, E., Pereira-Moliner, J., Molina-Azorin, J.F., 2010. Levels of quality and environmental management in the hotel industry: their joint in- fluence on firm performance. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 29 (3), 500e510.
Tarí, J.J., Molina-Azorín, J.F., Heras, I., 2012. Benefits of the ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 standards: a literature review. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. 5 (2), 297e322.
Terziovski, M., Samson, D., Dow, D., 1997. The business value of quality management systems certification. Evidence from Australia and New Zealand. J. Oper. Manag. 15, 1e18.
Wagner, M., 2007. Integration of environmental management with other managerial functions of the firm: empirical effects on drivers of economic performance. Long. Range Plan. 40, 611e628.
Wahba, H., 2008. Does the market value corporate environmental responsibility? an empirical examination. Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. 15, 89e99.
Wilkinson, G., Dale, B.G., 1998. System Integration: the views and activities of certification bodies. TQM Mag. 10 (4), 288e292. Wilkinson, G., Dale, B., 1999. Integrated management systems: an examination of the concept and theory. TQM Mag. 11 (2), 95e104.
Wilkinson, G., Dale, B., 2000. Management system standards: the key integration issues.Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 214, 771e780.
Wright, T., 2000. IMS e three into one will go!: the advantages of a single integrated quality, health and safety, and environmental management system. Qual. Assur. J. 4 (3), 137e142.
Yin, H., Schmeidler, P., 2009. Why do standardized ISO 14001 environmental management systems lead to heterogeneous environmental outcomes. Bus. Strategy Environ. 18, 469e486.
Zaramdini, W., 2007. An empirical study of the motives and benefits of ISO 9000 certification:the UAE experience. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 24 (5), 472e491.
Zeng, S., Tam, C., Tam, V., Deng, Z., 2005. Towards implementation of ISO 14001 environmental management systems in selected industries in China. J. Clean. Prod. 13, 645e656.
Zeng, S., Shi, J., Lou, G., 2007. A synergetic model for implementing an integrated management system: an empirical study in China. J. Clean. Prod. 15 (18), 1760e1767.
Zeng, S., Xie, X., Tam, C., Shen, L., 2011. An empirical examination of benefits from implementing integrated management systems (IMS). Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 22 (2), 173e186.
Zutshi, A., Sohal, A., 2005. Integrated management system: the experiences of three Australian organizations. J. Manuf. Technol. Manag. 16 (2), 211e232.