{"id":109,"date":"2018-07-02T12:20:39","date_gmt":"2018-07-02T12:20:39","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/lisp4.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=109"},"modified":"2018-07-30T12:11:38","modified_gmt":"2018-07-30T12:11:38","slug":"information-intermediaries","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/chapter\/information-intermediaries\/","title":{"rendered":"Information Intermediaries"},"content":{"raw":" \r\n\r\nI.\u00a0 <\/strong>Objectives<\/strong>\r\n
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To know about different types of information intermediaries\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To know about the functions of different types of information intermediaries\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To visualize their role in changing information environment.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nII.\u00a0\u00a0 Learning Outcome<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nAfter reading this module, you will able to:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Understand the meaning of information intermediary\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Learn about characteristics of information intermediaries\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Describe the various function of information intermediaries, and\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Know the various types, functions, etc of information intermediaries.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nIII.\u00a0\u00a0 Module Structure<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0 Introduction\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0 Information Intermediaries - Definition\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0 Characteristics of Information Intermediaries\r\n\r\n4.\u00a0 Functions of Information Intermediaries\r\n\r\n4.1\u00a0 Searching Data and Information\r\n\r\n4.2\u00a0 Analysing Data and Information\r\n\r\n4.3\u00a0 Disseminating Information\r\n\r\n4.4\u00a0 Maintaining Contact with Information Providers\r\n\r\n4.5\u00a0 Conducting Research of User Needs\r\n\r\n4.6\u00a0 Gathering Material from Various Sources\r\n\r\n4.7\u00a0 Handling Enquiries from Media, Organizations, etc.\r\n\r\n4.8\u00a0 Spreading Information through Variety of Media\r\n\r\n4.9\u00a0 Developing Range of Publications\r\n\r\n5.\u00a0 Types of Information Intermediaries\r\n\r\n5.1\u00a0 Profit Making Information Intermediaries\r\n\r\n5.1.1\u00a0 Information Brokers\r\n\r\n5.1.1.1\u00a0 Customers of Information Brokers\r\n\r\n5.1.1.2\u00a0 Functions of Information Brokers\r\n\r\n5.1.1.3\u00a0 Types of Information Brokers\r\n\r\n5.1.2\u00a0 Information Consultants<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.1.2.1\u00a0 Difference between Information Consultant and Information Broker<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.1.2.2\u00a0 Objectives of Information Consultants<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.1.2.3\u00a0 Functions of Information Consultants<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.1.3\u00a0 Online Vendors<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2\u00a0 Non- Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.1\u00a0 Technological Gatekeepers<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.1.1\u00a0 Functions of Technological Gatekeepers<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.1.2\u00a0 Role of Technological Gatekeepers in Internet Era<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.2\u00a0 Information Officers\/Librarians\/Reference Librarians<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.2.1\u00a0 Functions\/Services<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.3\u00a0 Information Filters<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.3.1\u00a0 Functions<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.4\u00a0 Invisible Colleges<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.5\u00a0 Extension Workers<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.5.1\u00a0 Objectives<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.5.2\u00a0 Functions<\/span>\r\n\r\n5.2.6\u00a0 Expert Systems<\/span>\r\n\r\n6.\u00a0 Information intermediaries in Knowledge society<\/span>\r\n\r\n7.\u00a0 Summary<\/span>\r\n\r\n8.\u00a0 References<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0 Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

In the present information age, information has been a key factor in not only transforming society, but also the pattern of operation of the economy. The newly emerging economies, the world over, have been changing and depending more and more on information technology. People are now seeking information increasingly, say, for decision-making, or to enhance understanding of the world politics, and so on. But the problem today is the glut of information, or information overload. It is growing not only in volume, but also in multiple formats and subjects adding to the complexities of information access. It is here that the need for some human agency in the form of experts called information intermediaries arises who could undertake the responsibilities of being a link between information and the users. Since all that is available is not required by the users, only relevant information has to be collected, searched, filtered, processed, and then delivered to those who actually require it. In fact, information intermediaries establish useful link between the producers and the users of information. These functions were earlier performed by the librarians, reference librarians, and other information professionals, but in the fast emerging new information society; few new groups of individuals are taking over the traditional service providers. They include such experts in dealing with information as the librarians, information brokers, information consultants, information officers, information gatekeepers, vendors, and so on.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n2.\u00a0 Information Intermediaries- Definition<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

An intermediary is usually a third person or party that offers inter mediation between two parties. The intermediary acts as a conduit for services offered by producers to users. Typically, intermediary offers some added value to the transaction that may not be possible in direct dealing.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In the context of business activities, an information intermediary could be a firm or person, such as broker or consultant, who acts as mediator or a link between parties to a business deal, investment decision, negotiation, etc. Intermediaries usually specialize in specific areas, and serve as a conduit for market and other types of information. For example, in our daily lives, we come across many such instances of mediators, who work as medium, or agent, like an insurance agent for a deal for life insurance, or a bank for profitable investment, or a property dealer who can help in striking a deal between the buyer and the seller, and so on.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

On the other hand, an information mediator is usually a person who serves as a link or a bridge, or a middleman between the producers and users of information. His\/her role becomes very important in this context as he\/she is to satisfy the information needs of his\/her customers.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

According to Ryan Womack, an information intermediary is the one who collects the required information, organizes it, and distributes to his\/her clients or users. He\/she does not create or generate or produce information but only mediates and establishes a link between the two.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n3.\u00a0 Characteristics of Information Intermediaries<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The importance and relevance of information intermediaries lies in their capabilities to successfully perform the following responsibilities:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To satisfy the requirements of consumers and producers of information.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To transfer the products and services between the producers and consumers of information.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To possess adequate knowledge of the information sources and their usefulness.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of technical aspects of information transfer.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of the subject(s) in which they intend to work.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To develop awareness of the users\u2019 characteristics and the environment under which the users operate.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of Internet sources and services.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To possess effective communication skills.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge and skills for information retrieval and other search techniques.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have adequate mental capability to analyze and interpret users\u2019 needs for information.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have such characteristics as being tactful, intelligent, imaginative, ingenious, curious, emphatic, persistent, energetic, technical sound, self-confident, and so on.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n4.\u00a0 Functions of Information Intermediaries<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The key function of the information intermediaries is to provide sufficient information to the users as quickly as possible to meet their needs. In order to achieve their objectives, they perform the following main functions:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.1\u00a0 Searching Data and Information<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries are required to search data and information from various sources available, including the information producers. To fulfil this function they undertake the following activities:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Identify the users and their information needs.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Identify the data sources which may satisfy the information needs of users.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Develop search strategy for accessing the databases, either manually or electronically.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Search \u00a0data \u00a0from \u00a0various \u00a0physical \u00a0formats \u00a0of \u00a0data, \u00a0including \u00a0the \u00a0digital \u00a0and \u00a0virtual collections.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Evaluate the searched data and information.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Direct users, if need be, to other sources of data and information.\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries who carry out the above mentioned activities are also known by such names as Information Counsellor, Information Searcher, Reference Librarian, Information Professional, Technical Information Officer, Knowledge Manager, Knowledge Officer, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.2\u00a0 Analysing Data and Information<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

While performing this function, the information intermediaries have the need of research and analysis of data and information in various sources available in libraries, computer files, databases, web portals, etc. In order to do proper analysis, information intermediaries need to take up the following activities:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To do abstracting work of data and information.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To summarize the previously written materials.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To consolidate the information from various sources.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To generate computer outputs of analysed data and information.\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries who carry out the above mentioned activities are also known by such names as Analysis Specialist, Information Counsellor, Operations Analyst, Knowledge Resource Analyst, and so on.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.3\u00a0 Disseminating Information<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries are required to deliver the needed information in required form and format. For this purpose, they have to carry out the following activities:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To consolidate the required information.<\/span>\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To repackage the needed data and information.<\/span>\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To prepare the state-of-the-art reports.<\/span>\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To design and develop reviews, etc.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries performing these activities are also known by such names as Information Analyst, Information Research Officer, Documentation Officer, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.4\u00a0 Maintaining Contact with Information Providers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The information intermediaries are required to maintain liaison with the producers and providers of information so as to keep themselves up to date regarding various trends.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.5\u00a0 Conducting Research of User Needs<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

It is incumbent on the information intermediaries to undertake research in user needs, through user studies, etc., to find out solutions to the problems likely to crop up.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.6\u00a0 Gathering Material from Various Sources<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Information intermediaries have to take up the responsibility of collecting the requisite material from as many sources as possible, and prepare succinct notes about them and deliver to the users for their use, whatsoever.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.7\u00a0 Handling Enquiries from Media, Organizations, etc.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

It is incumbent on the information intermediaries to extend help by providing requisite information in handling various enquiries, from media, various organizations, and public at large and providing needed answers to them.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.8\u00a0 Spreading Information through Variety of Media<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Information intermediaries must take up upon them to spread the information through a variety of media so as to reach a large number of users.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n4.9\u00a0 Developing Range of Publications<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

They must develop and expand the range of various types of publications, based on a variety of information for specialized markets, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.\u00a0 Types of Information Intermediaries<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Information intermediaries are mainly of two types. One is the profit making category of information intermediaries; while the other is non-profit making category. Let us discuss about these as follows:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1\u00a0 Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

This category of information intermediaries includes those individuals or organizations that provide information after charging some payment. These include the following:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.1\u00a0 Information Brokers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

When the society acknowledged information as a commodity, more so a tradable commodity, the need for information brokers also took place. An information broker, according to Katz, \u201cis a private individual or organization that sells\u2026information\u201d. But Keith Londrie believes that information broker does not sell information as he is not actually \u201cbroker\u201d of anything. He further states that information broker is more common with a lawyer or a doctor and charge a fee for professional services.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

However, information broker would invariably deal with specific questions and problems relating to information. In response to these questions, the information broker would usually prepare a list of citations of documents, or the actual information, that may help the user to find answers to the problem.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.1.1\u00a0 Customers of Information Brokers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The customers of information brokers usually include those individuals, firms, organizations, etc. that do not have their own library to depend upon for information when needed. They invariably approach such information brokers for any information useful to the users, as the brokers are a suitable link between the information producers and the users. They, therefore, work as the clearing houses for information, i.e., obtaining information from the sources and delivering to the needy users.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.1.2\u00a0 Functions of Information Brokers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nInformation brokers usually perform the following functions:\r\n\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The information brokers usually deal with problems by providing the required information to answer such question from their users as may help solve their daily needs. Such queries do not take much time in responding to the satisfaction of the users.<\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Another function performed by information brokers is to deal with the complex type of questions which require more time, more research, and detailed information to satisfy the needs of the users.<\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 In order to facilitate the use of information, the information brokers also provide translation services to their clients from unknown into the known language.<\/p>\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They also prepare current awareness services on the request of their customers.\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 From time to time, as the need arises, information brokers also compile bibliographies on the topics of their interest. The citations included may even show the market trends.<\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They prepare abstracts of the documents to facilitate easy use of information.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0 Sometimes the work of report writing on behalf of the users is also done by the information intermediaries.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information intermediaries perform the job of conducting literature searches for their customers. The search may be manual or online, or a combination of both.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They also engage themselves in retrieving the specific facts or statistics from any non- classified source of information.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

\u2022\u00a0 \u00a0On the request of their customers, information intermediaries provide photocopies of published material.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

Thus, the services of information brokers are obtained by not one but a wide variety of organizations, including industries of various types and sizes, advertising agencies, media houses, publishing houses, corporate houses, business enterprises, and so on.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.1.3\u00a0 Types of Information Brokers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nInformation brokers are of the following types:\r\n\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Independent Information Brokers<\/strong>: These types of information brokers include information consultants, freelance librarians, etc. They have been dealing in information and have adopted it as a profession. Therefore, they keep themselves busy in searching and researching information, analyse it, consolidate it, and repackage it for their users. They would generally charge a fee from their customers for providing such services. The fee charged, according to Katz, would be usually be based upon (a) time spent on the question or project, (b) direct costs from photocopying to online searches, and (c) miscellaneous costs, from typing and phone calls to travel.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Institutional Information Brokers<\/strong>: These information brokers are working from some organization or institution and provide services concerning them. They charge for most of the services which include online searching, compilation of document lists, current awareness services, document delivery, photocopying of published material, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.2\u00a0 Information Consultants<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

An information consultant may be a group of individuals, or a firm, which may further employ one or more information brokers or specialists in information related fields. In the words of Katz, information consultant \u201cnot only validates, but also evaluates, the information.\u201d The specialists, as information consultants, do many things, but basically they act as consultants. In that capacity they advise the customers, on the basis of the best information sources, about the way to follow. The information consultants can play more important role, perhaps, in industrial environment, by providing \u00a0useful \u00a0information \u00a0and \u00a0advice \u00a0about \u00a0development \u00a0of \u00a0resources, \u00a0or \u00a0new \u00a0product\u00a0development, or process development, etc. Thus, they can help the customers in developing new skills and knowledge which can be put to profitable use.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.2.1\u00a0 Difference between Information Consultant and Information Broker<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

From the above discussion, it is clear that there is a difference between the functions of an information consultant and an information broker. The major point of difference between the two is that while an information broker provides information to his customers only on demand, the information consultant, on the other hand, tells his customers what and how to do with information for his enterprise.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.2.2\u00a0 Objectives of Information Consultants<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nInformation consultants work to:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 deliver requested information\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 provide solution to a given problem\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 carry out diagnosis that may redefine problem\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 offer recommendations\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 help implementation\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 build consensus and commitment\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 facilitate customer learning\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 improve organizational effectiveness\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.2.3\u00a0 Functions of Information Consultants<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Information consultants are required to develop some special skills and competence to perform their functions effectively. Some of these functions are as follows:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They would provide information to their customers as they know how to search required information from libraries, company files, and\/or computer databases.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information consultants generally specialize in a particular field such as business, medical, legal, or education, etc. They search for information in that field and provide information on the latest trends.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They know how to evaluate the searched information, decide about its value, and select only that which is wanted by the customers.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sometimes they also compile information into detailed reports that their customers can understand and access easily for use.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.1.3 Online Vendors<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

A vendor is usually said to be an organization or individual supplier in a supply chain that markets and sells materials and \/or services to an individual or organization. Online vendors, as defined in ERIC Thesaurus are those organizations that maintain databases and related software on their\u00a0computer systems and sell online retrieval time to clients at multiple remote locations. Among the clients of these online vendors may be various types of libraries and information centres. These libraries, from time to time, may access the computerized databases of the online vendors, for such information is usually not available in their own resources. As information intermediaries, these vendors\/suppliers of information serve as useful sources of external search services for various information centres, companies, and other organizations to answer the queries, in turn, of their users.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

Most of these online vendors are major global commercial services that are available online 24x7 through various dedicated telecommunication networks. They provide access to their databases after charging some fees for the purpose depending upon the use; while in some cases they charge membership fee for obtaining their search services.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nSome examples of such online vendors include: USA: OCLC, DIALOG, BRS\r\n\r\nUK: BLAISE, ESA-IRS\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nIndia: Informatics\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2\u00a0 Non- Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

This category of information intermediaries provide information to the staff working in their parent institutions. Some of them are described as follows:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.1\u00a0 Technological Gatekeepers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Since old times, scientists and other researchers have been consulting each other in common areas of research through personal contact, peer groups, etc. They have been exchanging information regarded very important and not easily available through documentary sources. Technological gatekeepers are one such type of information intermediaries.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

According to Psychology Dictionary, an online comprehensive dictionary, Technological gatekeepers may play a role which consists of channelling data regarding innovations into the establishment from the outside. The individuals filling this role correspond with professionals inside and outside the establishment functioning as the conduit for new technical data.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Technological gatekeepers are experts both in internal and external communication having much higher frequency of exposure to the professional literature, attending more conferences, and more professional affiliations.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Allen termed some key persons who mediated between Research and Development (R&D) professionals and the outside world, as Technological Gatekeepers because they act as \u2018gate\u2019 through which information of external technologies flows into the R&D group. This is facilitated by\u00a0developing good external contacts as well as making timely and extensive use of available information services.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

Whelan et al. put forward a more formal definition which explains that technological gatekeepers are those key individual technologists who strongly connected both to internal colleagues and external sources of information and who possess the ability to translate between the two systems.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.1.1\u00a0 Functions of Technological Gatekeepers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Technological gatekeeper is a key node in the innovation process, i.e., acquiring, translating and disseminating external information to researchers throughout the organization. It may, however, be mentioned that the function of the Technological Gatekeepers is not limited only to the inflow of technical information. Gatekeeper role is vital to the organization, but their functions no longer be performed by a single individual.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nAccording to Whelan et al., Technological Gatekeepers essentially perform the following three functions:\r\n\r\n \r\n

a.\u00a0<\/strong>Acquisition<\/strong>: They perform the task of information acquisition from external sources. They scan the outside world for emerging scientific and technological developments relevant to the work of their researchers in the organization.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

b.\u00a0<\/strong>Translation<\/strong>: Technological gatekeepers perform the task of translating the external information. It involves delivering external information in a way that ensures its use by researchers within the organization or R&D group. In other words, they make the technical information understandable and relevant to the research projects by translating it into a language known to researchers from other languages unknown to them.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nc.\u00a0<\/strong>Dissemination<\/strong>: \u00a0Gatekeepers \u00a0perform \u00a0the \u00a0task \u00a0of \u00a0internal \u00a0information \u00a0dissemination.\r\n

Although they may have their own use for the information they acquire, they are also keenly interested in passing it on to others in the organization for their use.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Thus, the Technological Gatekeepers usually repackage the external information for internal use by researchers in a format that is convenient to them.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.1.2\u00a0 Role of Technological Gatekeepers in Internet Era<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

As a modern information intermediary, the role of Technological Gatekeepers has always been increasing to enhance scientific and technological research. It has further grown up in the present times of Internet. The concept as well as role of Technological Gatekeepers needs to be re- examined, according to Whelan et al., in the light of recent advances in Internet technologies.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In view of the multifaceted growth of information in recent times due to, inter alia, diversification of branches of knowledge, and increasing number of narrow fields of interest, the concept of\u00a0Technological Gatekeepers generated much interest in technological and innovation management literature.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

In the present scenario of changes in the field of information, no R&D organization can afford on its own to acquire the information relevant to its research projects. It has been found, on the basis of various studies, that the performance of development projects was significantly higher in R&D units with Technological Gatekeepers than those without them. Thus, development projects are more effectively linked to external information provided through intermediaries called Technological Gatekeepers. It underlines the need to redefine and reconsider the role of Technological Gatekeepers in the Internet era.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.2\u00a0 Information Officers\/Librarians\/Reference Librarians<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

These are another type of non-profit making information intermediaries who offer services to meet the information needs of their users. Many research organizations, R&D units, educational institutions, etc. have on their rolls information officers\/librarians\/documentation officers\/reference librarians who perform the function of information intermediaries. In view of the exponential growth of information, it may not be possible for researchers, scientists, educationists, etc. to access all the information published on their fields of interest. In the light of such a scenario, the role of information officer\/librarian assumes all the more significance in rendering timely information to the users.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.2.1\u00a0 Functions\/Services<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

They perform the basic functions of acquiring, processing, and organizing the documents and information contained therein to facilitate access. Although they have been providing these services for a long time, but in the context of application of the modern information technologies, and their professional skills and competencies, they would be providing the following services to their customers:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Indexing services\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Abstracting services\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Current awareness services\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Selective dissemination of information\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information consolidation and repackaging\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Online information services\r\n\r\n \r\n

For providing these and many more services, they would have to acquire, and further develop their professional knowledge, skills, and competencies. Their professional and personal skills would make them effective information officers\/librarians\/reference librarians.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.3\u00a0 Information Filters<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

In recent years there has been tremendous growth of literature and information in all fields of knowledge. As a result of this growth and time constraints on the part of researchers and scientists, it has become well-nigh impossible to search for relevant sources, through a maze of information, required by them. The vastness of information creates problems for the users as they retrieve a large number of references to literature which makes it difficult to sift through and look for the most relevant citations. This calls for the need of an information intermediary who could do this job of filtering and provide them only the relevant citations. \u2018Filters\u2019 help define a search, and determine which possibilities the librarian will present to the user in response to a query. Earlier, in libraries and information centres, this function of \u2018filtering\u2019 had been performed by librarians\/reference librarians. However, with the change in the nature of collection in libraries and information centres, developments of computerized databases, application of computers for storage and retrieval of information, users\u2019 needs becoming more complex and subject oriented, new and more skilled intermediaries are required who are well equipped with the professional skills as well as subject knowledge.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

These intermediaries can use both manual and electronic method for the filtering process so as to focus only on the relevant information citations. While searching computerized databases and\/or websites, they can make use of filters to restrict, delimit, or even block such information as is irrelevant for the potential users. The filtering software has made the filtering process very simple for the intermediaries to access electronic information. For example, SDI service keeps the researchers and scientists automatically updated by sending e-mails about the recently published information in their areas of interest.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.3.1\u00a0 Functions<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 These intermediaries will be able to perform the function of information filtering from the vast array of references, and thereby can overcome the problem of information overload.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 These information intermediaries, while using filters, will be able to bring all the possible but relevant information resource to the notice of their users to the latter\u2019s satisfaction.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They perform the function of an important link between the researchers and the information resources on all the possible subjects.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.4\u00a0 Invisible Colleges<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

This is another type of information intermediary from which information is collected by researchers and scientists working in different fields, and which does not charge any fee for its services. According to Kronick, the concept of \u201cInvisible College\u201d is not very recent, as it has been described as a precursor group to the Royal Society of London, consisting of a number of natural philosophers\u00a0who would share their ideas among themselves. He states that the concept was also used in the seventeenth century Europe letters.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

It is said that the concept of \u201cinvisible college\u201d was recently developed in the sociology of science by Diana Crane in 1972 based on Derek J. de Solla Price\u2019s work on citation networks. More recently, Wagner applied the concept to the global networks of communication among scientists.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In the words of Crane, invisible college is a communication network of a subgroup of researchers within a research area. Thus the concept of \u201cinvisible college\u201d refers to a community of scientific researchers who are working within a specific field of study that has some core issues in common. It is the name applied by some philosophers, sociologists, and historians of science to loose-knit but intercommunicating scientific research groups operating within a paradigm.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

According to Katz, the procedures in information gathering are, in most cases, common as mentioned below:<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The first source of information used by subject experts is usually conversation with a friend who knows the subject matter. They value the informal personal contact next door, or may be through telephone, correspondence, contact at conferences, seminars, meetings, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The low-cost communication over Internet has made e-mail a popular \u201cinvisible college\u201d of today. A scientist may talk person to person over the Internet or use a Listserv or Usenet discussion group and make it one- to- many conversation.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The personal library of the researchers is another important source of information. It contains books, periodicals, newspaper clippings, and nowadays even many reference sources on CD-ROMs or downloaded on personal discs.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The last dependable source of information is the reference librarian in their respective institutional libraries. The reference librarian, in turn, most likely, may have access to such databases that may provide the needed information not available elsewhere.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Thus, such formal and informal groups of persons where members share their ideas, information, and knowledge are called invisible colleges. They adopt the role of helpful information intermediaries for sharing useful information on the subjects of their concern on an interpersonal level.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.5\u00a0\u00a0 Extension Workers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

As information intermediaries, extension workers play a key role, particularly in rural areas. In most cases, they help in transferring information related to agricultural activities. Extension workers include agriculture agents, farm management advisors, extension service advisors, home economists, etc. The field of extension now covers a wider range of communication and learning activities\u00a0organized \u00a0mostly \u00a0for \u00a0rural \u00a0people. \u00a0These \u00a0activities \u00a0are \u00a0mostly \u00a0carried \u00a0out \u00a0by \u00a0educators \u00a0from different subject fields including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

Extension workers, throughout the world, usually work for government agencies. They are represented by several professional organizations, networks, etc. They are first trained by the research scientists; say in agriculture, about the latest know-how about farming, seeds, fertilizers, and so on, which information they further transfer to the needy people.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.5.1\u00a0 Objectives<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe extension workers usually work on the following aims and objectives:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To prepare and distribute leaflets, pamphlets, and visual aids for educational and informational purposes.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To collect and evaluate data in order to determine community programme needs.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To organize, advise, and participate in community activities and organizations such as fair events at local, state, and national levels.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To conduct classes and deliver lectures on subjects such as nutrition, home management, and farming techniques.\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To maintain records of services provided and the effects of advice offered.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.5.2\u00a0 Functions<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nIn order to meet the objectives, the extension workers generally perform the following functions:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\na.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Advisory Work<\/strong>: They would advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture, agriculture related processes, and home economics activities. They would respond to farmers\u2019 enquiries regarding technical prescriptions.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nb.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Technology Transfer<\/strong>: This function involves delivering specific recommendations to farmers about the practices they should adopt in their farming related activities.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nc.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Instruction Work<\/strong>: The extension workers would instruct and train in product development, sales and the use of machinery and equipment to promote general welfare.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nd.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Demonstration Work<\/strong>: It involves such work as to demonstrate procedures and apply research findings to solve problems.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\ne.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Human Resource Development<\/strong>: This function includes outreach activities of colleges and universities to give training to rural people.\r\n\r\n \r\n

f.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>Facilitation of Empowerment<\/strong>: It involves experimental learning and farmer-to-farmer exchange. Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and participants are encouraged to take their own decisions to solve the problems.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

Thus the role of extension workers in transferring requisite information to most of the uneducated farmers, farm labourers, and other families has helped to improve the working of agriculture sector.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n5.2.6\u00a0 Expert Systems<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Expert systems have evolved from a long tradition of artificial intelligence (AI) research. Of all the branches of artificial intelligence, expert systems hold the greatest potential. Expert systems are regarded as the most promising artificial intelligence technology. They are also known as \u2018intelligent systems\u2019, or \u2018knowledge systems\u2019, or \u2018knowledge-based systems\u2019 because they are meant to manipulate knowledge to provide requisite information as to solve the problems.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In the words of Ralph Alberico and Mary Micco, \u201cAn expert system is a group of computer programs, along with knowledge, information and database, which act together to simulate the problem-solving and decision-making processes of a human expert within a relatively narrow domain.\u201d Therefore, the key feature of expert systems is that they involve modelling the thought processes of human experts who are very familiar with the given problem domain. This is possible because they comprise of a knowledge-base, and inference engine, and such other intellectual components which show reasoning and find solutions.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

As the use of computers is already there in electronic information retrieval systems, it was prudent to build some intelligence into the way the system searches for information. Until recently, most online searching was done by human intermediaries. The aim of expert systems, therefore, has been to augment the expertise of the intermediary for information retrieval. In this way, they will become quite useful for online searching by removing information bottlenecks, etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

There are many examples of developing programs for expert systems for practical applications of problem-solving. For example:<\/p>\r\n \r\n

a.\u00a0 In 1970, an expert system called PROSPECTOR was designed to make decisions in mineral exploration. It performed successfully at prospecting when it predicted some mineral deposit near a mountain in Washington State, USA.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

b.\u00a0 Similarly, MYCIN expert system was started in 1972 and completed in 1976. It was for infectious blood disease diagnosis and therapy recommendation.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

It can be stated that a wide variety of programs have been developed in many fields performing a range of tasks. Expert systems have a number of possible applications in libraries, such as acquisition, cataloguing, abstracting, indexing, classification, database searching, interlibrary loan, online information retrieval, etc. The library and information professionals can look forward to the\u00a0time when they will be able to free themselves from the mundane tasks and spend more time for improving library and information services for their users.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n6.\u00a0 Information intermediaries in Knowledge society<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

In the 21st century society, information is one of the most widely and frequently used words. This has happened because of 20th century industrial revolution and increase in research and development (R & D) activities, particularly in science and technology. This and other characteristics lead to the emergence of \u2018knowledge society\u2019, also called as post-industrial society. The role and functions of information intermediaries has also undergoing a change in view of\u00a0changing information needs of variety users. Tom stonier a protagonist of post-industrial society identified the following features:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\ni.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Service economy rather than a manufacturing one in which the knowledge industry plays a dominant role.\r\n\r\nii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Characterized by a labour force dominated by people who operate with information content rather than.......................\r\n\r\n \r\n

In the \u2018Knowledge society\u2019 most of the work and job market depends upon information and knowledge handling. Information intermediaries are also likely to expand their roles to education functions use of new resources to find appropriate solution by problem solving, activities and so on.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Sr. No<\/strong><\/td>\r\n \r\n\r\nFunctions<\/strong><\/td>\r\n \r\n\r\nTypes of Workers<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
1<\/td>\r\nOrganization of Information<\/td>\r\nManagers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
2<\/td>\r\nTransmission of Information<\/td>\r\nSecretaries, \u00a0Telephone \u00a0Operators, \u00a0P\u2026\u2026\u2026Workers, Journalist, Educators, Technical Sale people, Database\r\n\r\nVendors, Information Technologist<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
3<\/td>\r\nInformation Storage and Retrieval<\/td>\r\nFiling\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Clarks,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Librarians,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information\/Knowledge workers, Computer Programmer, Database developers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
4<\/td>\r\nCreation of new information\r\n\r\nor New Patterns of Information<\/td>\r\nScientists,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Social\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Scientists,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Artists,\u00a0\u00a0 Statisticians,\r\n\r\nArchitects, Designers, Economists.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
5<\/td>\r\nApplication of Information\r\n\r\nto solve particular problems<\/td>\r\nLawyers, \u00a0Doctors, \u00a0Counsellors, \u00a0Accountants, \u00a0Policy\r\n\r\nMakers, Corporate Decision Makers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
6<\/td>\r\nReception of Information<\/td>\r\nStudents, Common People<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
7<\/td>\r\nProduction and packaging of\r\n\r\ninformation<\/td>\r\nPublishers, Information Analysts, Information Service\r\n\r\nProvider, System Designers, Computer programmers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
8<\/td>\r\nManipulation of Information<\/td>\r\nAdvertising \u00a0Personnel, \u00a0Public \u00a0Relation \u00a0Personnel,\r\n\r\nMedia Personnel<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n \r\n\r\nTable 1: Different Types of Workers and their roles in Knowledge Society\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThis provides an overview of the changing role of the Information intermediaries.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n7.\u00a0 Summary<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The present Module discusses about the implications of all round information explosion restricting the access of scientists, researchers, etc., to the required information. This need has brought in individuals or groups known as information intermediaries who would serve as link between the producers and users of information including the traditional reference librarians. It briefly describes the characteristics and functions of information intermediaries. It further discusses about both the types of profit-making and non-profit making information intermediaries.It highlights the need and functions of various types of information intermediaries such as information brokers, information consultants, technological gatekeepers, online vendors, information filters, invisible colleges etc.It also discusses about expert systems which have recently developed as a result of the advances in information and communication technologies and have been operating successfully in various fields of knowledge including libraries and information centres.Also, presents an overview of the changing role of information intermediaries in the 21st Century.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n8.\u00a0 References<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1. Alberico, Ralph and Micco, Mary. Expert Systems for Reference and Information Retrieval.\r\n\r\nNew York:\r\n\r\n2. Allen, T. J. \u201cOrganizational Aspects of Information Flow.\u201dAslib Proceedings 20, no. 11 (1968): 433-54.\r\n\r\n3. Chamberlain, Carol.\u201cThe Gatekeeper and Information.\u201d Library Acquisition: Practice and Theory 15, (1991): 265-69.\r\n\r\n4. Crane, Diana. Invisible Colleges: Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities.\r\n\r\nChicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.\r\n\r\n5. Duckitt, P. \u201cThe Intermediary Today and Tomorrow\u201d. Aslib Proceedings 36, no. 2 (1984): 79-86.\r\n\r\n6. Gilchrist, Alan. \u201cLibrary and Information Science Consultancy in the United Kingdom\u201d.inEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1999. Vol. 64, p. 211-18.\r\n\r\n7.\u00a0 Grove, Ralph F. \u201cExpert Systems Development on the Internet\u201d. InEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2002. Vol. 72, p 192-206.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n \t
  1. Johnson, Alice. \u201cInformation Brokers\u201d.inEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991. Vol.48, p. 171-76.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Kronick, David A. \u201cThe Commerce of Letters: Networks and \u201cInvisible Colleges\u201d in Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe\u201d. The Library Quarterly 71, no. 1 (2001): 28-43.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Londrie, Keith. \u201cWhat is an Information Broker?.\u201d Retrieved from http:\/\/www.info-<\/a> resource.com\/<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Rugee, Sue and Glossbrenner, Alfred. The Information Broker\u2019s Handbook. 2nded. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Storier, T, The Wealth of Information: A Profile of the Post Industrial Economy, London: Methven, 1983<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Wagner, Caroline S. The New Invisible College: Science for Development. Washington D.C.: Brookling Press, 2008.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Ward, Sandra. \u201cInformation Professionals for the Next Millennium.\u201d Journal of Information Science 25, no. 4 (1999): 239-47.<\/li>\r\n \t
  8. Whelan, Eoin, et al. \u201cHow Internet Technologies Impact Information Flows in R&D; Reconsidering the Technological Gatekeepers\u201d. Retrieved from http:\/\/eprints.nuim.ie\/3017\/1\/R&D_Management_Journal_ <\/a>Paper.pdf<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  9. Womack, Ryan. \u201cInformation Intermediaries and Optimal Distribution.\u201d Library and Information Science Research 24, no. 2 (2002): 129-35.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","rendered":"

     <\/p>\n

    I.\u00a0 <\/strong>Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To know about different types of information intermediaries<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To know about the functions of different types of information intermediaries<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To visualize their role in changing information environment.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    II.\u00a0\u00a0 Learning Outcome<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    After reading this module, you will able to:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Understand the meaning of information intermediary<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Learn about characteristics of information intermediaries<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Describe the various function of information intermediaries, and<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Know the various types, functions, etc of information intermediaries.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    III.\u00a0\u00a0 Module Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    1.\u00a0 Introduction<\/p>\n

    2.\u00a0 Information Intermediaries – Definition<\/p>\n

    3.\u00a0 Characteristics of Information Intermediaries<\/p>\n

    4.\u00a0 Functions of Information Intermediaries<\/p>\n

    4.1\u00a0 Searching Data and Information<\/p>\n

    4.2\u00a0 Analysing Data and Information<\/p>\n

    4.3\u00a0 Disseminating Information<\/p>\n

    4.4\u00a0 Maintaining Contact with Information Providers<\/p>\n

    4.5\u00a0 Conducting Research of User Needs<\/p>\n

    4.6\u00a0 Gathering Material from Various Sources<\/p>\n

    4.7\u00a0 Handling Enquiries from Media, Organizations, etc.<\/p>\n

    4.8\u00a0 Spreading Information through Variety of Media<\/p>\n

    4.9\u00a0 Developing Range of Publications<\/p>\n

    5.\u00a0 Types of Information Intermediaries<\/p>\n

    5.1\u00a0 Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/p>\n

    5.1.1\u00a0 Information Brokers<\/p>\n

    5.1.1.1\u00a0 Customers of Information Brokers<\/p>\n

    5.1.1.2\u00a0 Functions of Information Brokers<\/p>\n

    5.1.1.3\u00a0 Types of Information Brokers<\/p>\n

    5.1.2\u00a0 Information Consultants<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.1.2.1\u00a0 Difference between Information Consultant and Information Broker<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.1.2.2\u00a0 Objectives of Information Consultants<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.1.2.3\u00a0 Functions of Information Consultants<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.1.3\u00a0 Online Vendors<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2\u00a0 Non- Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.1\u00a0 Technological Gatekeepers<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.1.1\u00a0 Functions of Technological Gatekeepers<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.1.2\u00a0 Role of Technological Gatekeepers in Internet Era<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.2\u00a0 Information Officers\/Librarians\/Reference Librarians<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.2.1\u00a0 Functions\/Services<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.3\u00a0 Information Filters<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.3.1\u00a0 Functions<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.4\u00a0 Invisible Colleges<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.5\u00a0 Extension Workers<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.5.1\u00a0 Objectives<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.5.2\u00a0 Functions<\/span><\/p>\n

    5.2.6\u00a0 Expert Systems<\/span><\/p>\n

    6.\u00a0 Information intermediaries in Knowledge society<\/span><\/p>\n

    7.\u00a0 Summary<\/span><\/p>\n

    8.\u00a0 References<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    1.\u00a0 Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the present information age, information has been a key factor in not only transforming society, but also the pattern of operation of the economy. The newly emerging economies, the world over, have been changing and depending more and more on information technology. People are now seeking information increasingly, say, for decision-making, or to enhance understanding of the world politics, and so on. But the problem today is the glut of information, or information overload. It is growing not only in volume, but also in multiple formats and subjects adding to the complexities of information access. It is here that the need for some human agency in the form of experts called information intermediaries arises who could undertake the responsibilities of being a link between information and the users. Since all that is available is not required by the users, only relevant information has to be collected, searched, filtered, processed, and then delivered to those who actually require it. In fact, information intermediaries establish useful link between the producers and the users of information. These functions were earlier performed by the librarians, reference librarians, and other information professionals, but in the fast emerging new information society; few new groups of individuals are taking over the traditional service providers. They include such experts in dealing with information as the librarians, information brokers, information consultants, information officers, information gatekeepers, vendors, and so on.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    2.\u00a0 Information Intermediaries- Definition<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    An intermediary is usually a third person or party that offers inter mediation between two parties. The intermediary acts as a conduit for services offered by producers to users. Typically, intermediary offers some added value to the transaction that may not be possible in direct dealing.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the context of business activities, an information intermediary could be a firm or person, such as broker or consultant, who acts as mediator or a link between parties to a business deal, investment decision, negotiation, etc. Intermediaries usually specialize in specific areas, and serve as a conduit for market and other types of information. For example, in our daily lives, we come across many such instances of mediators, who work as medium, or agent, like an insurance agent for a deal for life insurance, or a bank for profitable investment, or a property dealer who can help in striking a deal between the buyer and the seller, and so on.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    On the other hand, an information mediator is usually a person who serves as a link or a bridge, or a middleman between the producers and users of information. His\/her role becomes very important in this context as he\/she is to satisfy the information needs of his\/her customers.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    According to Ryan Womack, an information intermediary is the one who collects the required information, organizes it, and distributes to his\/her clients or users. He\/she does not create or generate or produce information but only mediates and establishes a link between the two.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    3.\u00a0 Characteristics of Information Intermediaries<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The importance and relevance of information intermediaries lies in their capabilities to successfully perform the following responsibilities:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To satisfy the requirements of consumers and producers of information.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To transfer the products and services between the producers and consumers of information.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To possess adequate knowledge of the information sources and their usefulness.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of technical aspects of information transfer.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of the subject(s) in which they intend to work.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To develop awareness of the users\u2019 characteristics and the environment under which the users operate.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge of Internet sources and services.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To possess effective communication skills.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have knowledge and skills for information retrieval and other search techniques.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have adequate mental capability to analyze and interpret users\u2019 needs for information.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To have such characteristics as being tactful, intelligent, imaginative, ingenious, curious, emphatic, persistent, energetic, technical sound, self-confident, and so on.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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     <\/p>\n

    4.\u00a0 Functions of Information Intermediaries<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The key function of the information intermediaries is to provide sufficient information to the users as quickly as possible to meet their needs. In order to achieve their objectives, they perform the following main functions:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.1\u00a0 Searching Data and Information<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries are required to search data and information from various sources available, including the information producers. To fulfil this function they undertake the following activities:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Identify the users and their information needs.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Identify the data sources which may satisfy the information needs of users.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Develop search strategy for accessing the databases, either manually or electronically.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Search \u00a0data \u00a0from \u00a0various \u00a0physical \u00a0formats \u00a0of \u00a0data, \u00a0including \u00a0the \u00a0digital \u00a0and \u00a0virtual collections.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Evaluate the searched data and information.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Direct users, if need be, to other sources of data and information.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries who carry out the above mentioned activities are also known by such names as Information Counsellor, Information Searcher, Reference Librarian, Information Professional, Technical Information Officer, Knowledge Manager, Knowledge Officer, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.2\u00a0 Analysing Data and Information<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    While performing this function, the information intermediaries have the need of research and analysis of data and information in various sources available in libraries, computer files, databases, web portals, etc. In order to do proper analysis, information intermediaries need to take up the following activities:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To do abstracting work of data and information.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To summarize the previously written materials.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To consolidate the information from various sources.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To generate computer outputs of analysed data and information.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries who carry out the above mentioned activities are also known by such names as Analysis Specialist, Information Counsellor, Operations Analyst, Knowledge Resource Analyst, and so on.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.3\u00a0 Disseminating Information<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries are required to deliver the needed information in required form and format. For this purpose, they have to carry out the following activities:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To consolidate the required information.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To repackage the needed data and information.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To prepare the state-of-the-art reports.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To design and develop reviews, etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries performing these activities are also known by such names as Information Analyst, Information Research Officer, Documentation Officer, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.4\u00a0 Maintaining Contact with Information Providers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The information intermediaries are required to maintain liaison with the producers and providers of information so as to keep themselves up to date regarding various trends.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.5\u00a0 Conducting Research of User Needs<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    It is incumbent on the information intermediaries to undertake research in user needs, through user studies, etc., to find out solutions to the problems likely to crop up.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.6\u00a0 Gathering Material from Various Sources<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information intermediaries have to take up the responsibility of collecting the requisite material from as many sources as possible, and prepare succinct notes about them and deliver to the users for their use, whatsoever.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.7\u00a0 Handling Enquiries from Media, Organizations, etc.<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    It is incumbent on the information intermediaries to extend help by providing requisite information in handling various enquiries, from media, various organizations, and public at large and providing needed answers to them.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.8\u00a0 Spreading Information through Variety of Media<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information intermediaries must take up upon them to spread the information through a variety of media so as to reach a large number of users.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    4.9\u00a0 Developing Range of Publications<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    They must develop and expand the range of various types of publications, based on a variety of information for specialized markets, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.\u00a0 Types of Information Intermediaries<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information intermediaries are mainly of two types. One is the profit making category of information intermediaries; while the other is non-profit making category. Let us discuss about these as follows:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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     <\/p>\n

    5.1\u00a0 Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    This category of information intermediaries includes those individuals or organizations that provide information after charging some payment. These include the following:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.1\u00a0 Information Brokers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    When the society acknowledged information as a commodity, more so a tradable commodity, the need for information brokers also took place. An information broker, according to Katz, \u201cis a private individual or organization that sells\u2026information\u201d. But Keith Londrie believes that information broker does not sell information as he is not actually \u201cbroker\u201d of anything. He further states that information broker is more common with a lawyer or a doctor and charge a fee for professional services.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    However, information broker would invariably deal with specific questions and problems relating to information. In response to these questions, the information broker would usually prepare a list of citations of documents, or the actual information, that may help the user to find answers to the problem.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.1.1\u00a0 Customers of Information Brokers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The customers of information brokers usually include those individuals, firms, organizations, etc. that do not have their own library to depend upon for information when needed. They invariably approach such information brokers for any information useful to the users, as the brokers are a suitable link between the information producers and the users. They, therefore, work as the clearing houses for information, i.e., obtaining information from the sources and delivering to the needy users.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.1.2\u00a0 Functions of Information Brokers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information brokers usually perform the following functions:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The information brokers usually deal with problems by providing the required information to answer such question from their users as may help solve their daily needs. Such queries do not take much time in responding to the satisfaction of the users.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Another function performed by information brokers is to deal with the complex type of questions which require more time, more research, and detailed information to satisfy the needs of the users.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 In order to facilitate the use of information, the information brokers also provide translation services to their clients from unknown into the known language.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They also prepare current awareness services on the request of their customers.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 From time to time, as the need arises, information brokers also compile bibliographies on the topics of their interest. The citations included may even show the market trends.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They prepare abstracts of the documents to facilitate easy use of information.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0 Sometimes the work of report writing on behalf of the users is also done by the information intermediaries.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information intermediaries perform the job of conducting literature searches for their customers. The search may be manual or online, or a combination of both.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They also engage themselves in retrieving the specific facts or statistics from any non- classified source of information.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0 \u00a0On the request of their customers, information intermediaries provide photocopies of published material.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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     <\/p>\n

    Thus, the services of information brokers are obtained by not one but a wide variety of organizations, including industries of various types and sizes, advertising agencies, media houses, publishing houses, corporate houses, business enterprises, and so on.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.1.3\u00a0 Types of Information Brokers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information brokers are of the following types:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Independent Information Brokers<\/strong>: These types of information brokers include information consultants, freelance librarians, etc. They have been dealing in information and have adopted it as a profession. Therefore, they keep themselves busy in searching and researching information, analyse it, consolidate it, and repackage it for their users. They would generally charge a fee from their customers for providing such services. The fee charged, according to Katz, would be usually be based upon (a) time spent on the question or project, (b) direct costs from photocopying to online searches, and (c) miscellaneous costs, from typing and phone calls to travel.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Institutional Information Brokers<\/strong>: These information brokers are working from some organization or institution and provide services concerning them. They charge for most of the services which include online searching, compilation of document lists, current awareness services, document delivery, photocopying of published material, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.2\u00a0 Information Consultants<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    An information consultant may be a group of individuals, or a firm, which may further employ one or more information brokers or specialists in information related fields. In the words of Katz, information consultant \u201cnot only validates, but also evaluates, the information.\u201d The specialists, as information consultants, do many things, but basically they act as consultants. In that capacity they advise the customers, on the basis of the best information sources, about the way to follow. The information consultants can play more important role, perhaps, in industrial environment, by providing \u00a0useful \u00a0information \u00a0and \u00a0advice \u00a0about \u00a0development \u00a0of \u00a0resources, \u00a0or \u00a0new \u00a0product\u00a0development, or process development, etc. Thus, they can help the customers in developing new skills and knowledge which can be put to profitable use.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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     <\/p>\n

    5.1.2.1\u00a0 Difference between Information Consultant and Information Broker<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    From the above discussion, it is clear that there is a difference between the functions of an information consultant and an information broker. The major point of difference between the two is that while an information broker provides information to his customers only on demand, the information consultant, on the other hand, tells his customers what and how to do with information for his enterprise.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.2.2\u00a0 Objectives of Information Consultants<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information consultants work to:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 deliver requested information<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 provide solution to a given problem<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 carry out diagnosis that may redefine problem<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 offer recommendations<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 help implementation<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 build consensus and commitment<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 facilitate customer learning<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 improve organizational effectiveness<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.2.3\u00a0 Functions of Information Consultants<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Information consultants are required to develop some special skills and competence to perform their functions effectively. Some of these functions are as follows:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They would provide information to their customers as they know how to search required information from libraries, company files, and\/or computer databases.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information consultants generally specialize in a particular field such as business, medical, legal, or education, etc. They search for information in that field and provide information on the latest trends.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They know how to evaluate the searched information, decide about its value, and select only that which is wanted by the customers.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sometimes they also compile information into detailed reports that their customers can understand and access easily for use.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.1.3 Online Vendors<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    A vendor is usually said to be an organization or individual supplier in a supply chain that markets and sells materials and \/or services to an individual or organization. Online vendors, as defined in ERIC Thesaurus are those organizations that maintain databases and related software on their\u00a0computer systems and sell online retrieval time to clients at multiple remote locations. Among the clients of these online vendors may be various types of libraries and information centres. These libraries, from time to time, may access the computerized databases of the online vendors, for such information is usually not available in their own resources. As information intermediaries, these vendors\/suppliers of information serve as useful sources of external search services for various information centres, companies, and other organizations to answer the queries, in turn, of their users.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    Most of these online vendors are major global commercial services that are available online 24×7 through various dedicated telecommunication networks. They provide access to their databases after charging some fees for the purpose depending upon the use; while in some cases they charge membership fee for obtaining their search services.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Some examples of such online vendors include: USA: OCLC, DIALOG, BRS<\/p>\n

    UK: BLAISE, ESA-IRS<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    India: Informatics<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2\u00a0 Non- Profit Making Information Intermediaries<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    This category of information intermediaries provide information to the staff working in their parent institutions. Some of them are described as follows:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.1\u00a0 Technological Gatekeepers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Since old times, scientists and other researchers have been consulting each other in common areas of research through personal contact, peer groups, etc. They have been exchanging information regarded very important and not easily available through documentary sources. Technological gatekeepers are one such type of information intermediaries.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    According to Psychology Dictionary, an online comprehensive dictionary, Technological gatekeepers may play a role which consists of channelling data regarding innovations into the establishment from the outside. The individuals filling this role correspond with professionals inside and outside the establishment functioning as the conduit for new technical data.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Technological gatekeepers are experts both in internal and external communication having much higher frequency of exposure to the professional literature, attending more conferences, and more professional affiliations.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Allen termed some key persons who mediated between Research and Development (R&D) professionals and the outside world, as Technological Gatekeepers because they act as \u2018gate\u2019 through which information of external technologies flows into the R&D group. This is facilitated by\u00a0developing good external contacts as well as making timely and extensive use of available information services.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    Whelan et al. put forward a more formal definition which explains that technological gatekeepers are those key individual technologists who strongly connected both to internal colleagues and external sources of information and who possess the ability to translate between the two systems.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.1.1\u00a0 Functions of Technological Gatekeepers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Technological gatekeeper is a key node in the innovation process, i.e., acquiring, translating and disseminating external information to researchers throughout the organization. It may, however, be mentioned that the function of the Technological Gatekeepers is not limited only to the inflow of technical information. Gatekeeper role is vital to the organization, but their functions no longer be performed by a single individual.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    According to Whelan et al., Technological Gatekeepers essentially perform the following three functions:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    a.\u00a0<\/strong>Acquisition<\/strong>: They perform the task of information acquisition from external sources. They scan the outside world for emerging scientific and technological developments relevant to the work of their researchers in the organization.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    b.\u00a0<\/strong>Translation<\/strong>: Technological gatekeepers perform the task of translating the external information. It involves delivering external information in a way that ensures its use by researchers within the organization or R&D group. In other words, they make the technical information understandable and relevant to the research projects by translating it into a language known to researchers from other languages unknown to them.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    c.\u00a0<\/strong>Dissemination<\/strong>: \u00a0Gatekeepers \u00a0perform \u00a0the \u00a0task \u00a0of \u00a0internal \u00a0information \u00a0dissemination.<\/p>\n

    Although they may have their own use for the information they acquire, they are also keenly interested in passing it on to others in the organization for their use.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Thus, the Technological Gatekeepers usually repackage the external information for internal use by researchers in a format that is convenient to them.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.1.2\u00a0 Role of Technological Gatekeepers in Internet Era<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    As a modern information intermediary, the role of Technological Gatekeepers has always been increasing to enhance scientific and technological research. It has further grown up in the present times of Internet. The concept as well as role of Technological Gatekeepers needs to be re- examined, according to Whelan et al., in the light of recent advances in Internet technologies.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In view of the multifaceted growth of information in recent times due to, inter alia, diversification of branches of knowledge, and increasing number of narrow fields of interest, the concept of\u00a0Technological Gatekeepers generated much interest in technological and innovation management literature.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    In the present scenario of changes in the field of information, no R&D organization can afford on its own to acquire the information relevant to its research projects. It has been found, on the basis of various studies, that the performance of development projects was significantly higher in R&D units with Technological Gatekeepers than those without them. Thus, development projects are more effectively linked to external information provided through intermediaries called Technological Gatekeepers. It underlines the need to redefine and reconsider the role of Technological Gatekeepers in the Internet era.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.2\u00a0 Information Officers\/Librarians\/Reference Librarians<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    These are another type of non-profit making information intermediaries who offer services to meet the information needs of their users. Many research organizations, R&D units, educational institutions, etc. have on their rolls information officers\/librarians\/documentation officers\/reference librarians who perform the function of information intermediaries. In view of the exponential growth of information, it may not be possible for researchers, scientists, educationists, etc. to access all the information published on their fields of interest. In the light of such a scenario, the role of information officer\/librarian assumes all the more significance in rendering timely information to the users.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.2.1\u00a0 Functions\/Services<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    They perform the basic functions of acquiring, processing, and organizing the documents and information contained therein to facilitate access. Although they have been providing these services for a long time, but in the context of application of the modern information technologies, and their professional skills and competencies, they would be providing the following services to their customers:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Indexing services<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Abstracting services<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Current awareness services<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Selective dissemination of information<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information consolidation and repackaging<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Online information services<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    For providing these and many more services, they would have to acquire, and further develop their professional knowledge, skills, and competencies. Their professional and personal skills would make them effective information officers\/librarians\/reference librarians.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.3\u00a0 Information Filters<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In recent years there has been tremendous growth of literature and information in all fields of knowledge. As a result of this growth and time constraints on the part of researchers and scientists, it has become well-nigh impossible to search for relevant sources, through a maze of information, required by them. The vastness of information creates problems for the users as they retrieve a large number of references to literature which makes it difficult to sift through and look for the most relevant citations. This calls for the need of an information intermediary who could do this job of filtering and provide them only the relevant citations. \u2018Filters\u2019 help define a search, and determine which possibilities the librarian will present to the user in response to a query. Earlier, in libraries and information centres, this function of \u2018filtering\u2019 had been performed by librarians\/reference librarians. However, with the change in the nature of collection in libraries and information centres, developments of computerized databases, application of computers for storage and retrieval of information, users\u2019 needs becoming more complex and subject oriented, new and more skilled intermediaries are required who are well equipped with the professional skills as well as subject knowledge.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    These intermediaries can use both manual and electronic method for the filtering process so as to focus only on the relevant information citations. While searching computerized databases and\/or websites, they can make use of filters to restrict, delimit, or even block such information as is irrelevant for the potential users. The filtering software has made the filtering process very simple for the intermediaries to access electronic information. For example, SDI service keeps the researchers and scientists automatically updated by sending e-mails about the recently published information in their areas of interest.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.3.1\u00a0 Functions<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 These intermediaries will be able to perform the function of information filtering from the vast array of references, and thereby can overcome the problem of information overload.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 These information intermediaries, while using filters, will be able to bring all the possible but relevant information resource to the notice of their users to the latter\u2019s satisfaction.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They perform the function of an important link between the researchers and the information resources on all the possible subjects.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.4\u00a0 Invisible Colleges<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    This is another type of information intermediary from which information is collected by researchers and scientists working in different fields, and which does not charge any fee for its services. According to Kronick, the concept of \u201cInvisible College\u201d is not very recent, as it has been described as a precursor group to the Royal Society of London, consisting of a number of natural philosophers\u00a0who would share their ideas among themselves. He states that the concept was also used in the seventeenth century Europe letters.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    It is said that the concept of \u201cinvisible college\u201d was recently developed in the sociology of science by Diana Crane in 1972 based on Derek J. de Solla Price\u2019s work on citation networks. More recently, Wagner applied the concept to the global networks of communication among scientists.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the words of Crane, invisible college is a communication network of a subgroup of researchers within a research area. Thus the concept of \u201cinvisible college\u201d refers to a community of scientific researchers who are working within a specific field of study that has some core issues in common. It is the name applied by some philosophers, sociologists, and historians of science to loose-knit but intercommunicating scientific research groups operating within a paradigm.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    According to Katz, the procedures in information gathering are, in most cases, common as mentioned below:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The first source of information used by subject experts is usually conversation with a friend who knows the subject matter. They value the informal personal contact next door, or may be through telephone, correspondence, contact at conferences, seminars, meetings, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The low-cost communication over Internet has made e-mail a popular \u201cinvisible college\u201d of today. A scientist may talk person to person over the Internet or use a Listserv or Usenet discussion group and make it one- to- many conversation.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The personal library of the researchers is another important source of information. It contains books, periodicals, newspaper clippings, and nowadays even many reference sources on CD-ROMs or downloaded on personal discs.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The last dependable source of information is the reference librarian in their respective institutional libraries. The reference librarian, in turn, most likely, may have access to such databases that may provide the needed information not available elsewhere.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Thus, such formal and informal groups of persons where members share their ideas, information, and knowledge are called invisible colleges. They adopt the role of helpful information intermediaries for sharing useful information on the subjects of their concern on an interpersonal level.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.5\u00a0\u00a0 Extension Workers<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    As information intermediaries, extension workers play a key role, particularly in rural areas. In most cases, they help in transferring information related to agricultural activities. Extension workers include agriculture agents, farm management advisors, extension service advisors, home economists, etc. The field of extension now covers a wider range of communication and learning activities\u00a0organized \u00a0mostly \u00a0for \u00a0rural \u00a0people. \u00a0These \u00a0activities \u00a0are \u00a0mostly \u00a0carried \u00a0out \u00a0by \u00a0educators \u00a0from different subject fields including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    Extension workers, throughout the world, usually work for government agencies. They are represented by several professional organizations, networks, etc. They are first trained by the research scientists; say in agriculture, about the latest know-how about farming, seeds, fertilizers, and so on, which information they further transfer to the needy people.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.5.1\u00a0 Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The extension workers usually work on the following aims and objectives:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To prepare and distribute leaflets, pamphlets, and visual aids for educational and informational purposes.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To collect and evaluate data in order to determine community programme needs.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To organize, advise, and participate in community activities and organizations such as fair events at local, state, and national levels.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To conduct classes and deliver lectures on subjects such as nutrition, home management, and farming techniques.<\/p>\n

    \u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To maintain records of services provided and the effects of advice offered.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.5.2\u00a0 Functions<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In order to meet the objectives, the extension workers generally perform the following functions:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Advisory Work<\/strong>: They would advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture, agriculture related processes, and home economics activities. They would respond to farmers\u2019 enquiries regarding technical prescriptions.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Technology Transfer<\/strong>: This function involves delivering specific recommendations to farmers about the practices they should adopt in their farming related activities.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Instruction Work<\/strong>: The extension workers would instruct and train in product development, sales and the use of machinery and equipment to promote general welfare.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    d.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Demonstration Work<\/strong>: It involves such work as to demonstrate procedures and apply research findings to solve problems.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    e.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Human Resource Development<\/strong>: This function includes outreach activities of colleges and universities to give training to rural people.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    f.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>Facilitation of Empowerment<\/strong>: It involves experimental learning and farmer-to-farmer exchange. Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and participants are encouraged to take their own decisions to solve the problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    Thus the role of extension workers in transferring requisite information to most of the uneducated farmers, farm labourers, and other families has helped to improve the working of agriculture sector.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    5.2.6\u00a0 Expert Systems<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Expert systems have evolved from a long tradition of artificial intelligence (AI) research. Of all the branches of artificial intelligence, expert systems hold the greatest potential. Expert systems are regarded as the most promising artificial intelligence technology. They are also known as \u2018intelligent systems\u2019, or \u2018knowledge systems\u2019, or \u2018knowledge-based systems\u2019 because they are meant to manipulate knowledge to provide requisite information as to solve the problems.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the words of Ralph Alberico and Mary Micco, \u201cAn expert system is a group of computer programs, along with knowledge, information and database, which act together to simulate the problem-solving and decision-making processes of a human expert within a relatively narrow domain.\u201d Therefore, the key feature of expert systems is that they involve modelling the thought processes of human experts who are very familiar with the given problem domain. This is possible because they comprise of a knowledge-base, and inference engine, and such other intellectual components which show reasoning and find solutions.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    As the use of computers is already there in electronic information retrieval systems, it was prudent to build some intelligence into the way the system searches for information. Until recently, most online searching was done by human intermediaries. The aim of expert systems, therefore, has been to augment the expertise of the intermediary for information retrieval. In this way, they will become quite useful for online searching by removing information bottlenecks, etc.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    There are many examples of developing programs for expert systems for practical applications of problem-solving. For example:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    a.\u00a0 In 1970, an expert system called PROSPECTOR was designed to make decisions in mineral exploration. It performed successfully at prospecting when it predicted some mineral deposit near a mountain in Washington State, USA.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    b.\u00a0 Similarly, MYCIN expert system was started in 1972 and completed in 1976. It was for infectious blood disease diagnosis and therapy recommendation.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    It can be stated that a wide variety of programs have been developed in many fields performing a range of tasks. Expert systems have a number of possible applications in libraries, such as acquisition, cataloguing, abstracting, indexing, classification, database searching, interlibrary loan, online information retrieval, etc. The library and information professionals can look forward to the\u00a0time when they will be able to free themselves from the mundane tasks and spend more time for improving library and information services for their users.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    6.\u00a0 Information intermediaries in Knowledge society<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the 21st century society, information is one of the most widely and frequently used words. This has happened because of 20th century industrial revolution and increase in research and development (R & D) activities, particularly in science and technology. This and other characteristics lead to the emergence of \u2018knowledge society\u2019, also called as post-industrial society. The role and functions of information intermediaries has also undergoing a change in view of\u00a0changing information needs of variety users. Tom stonier a protagonist of post-industrial society identified the following features:<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    i.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Service economy rather than a manufacturing one in which the knowledge industry plays a dominant role.<\/p>\n

    ii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Characterized by a labour force dominated by people who operate with information content rather than…………………..<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    In the \u2018Knowledge society\u2019 most of the work and job market depends upon information and knowledge handling. Information intermediaries are also likely to expand their roles to education functions use of new resources to find appropriate solution by problem solving, activities and so on.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Sr. No<\/strong><\/td>\n <\/p>\n

    Functions<\/strong><\/td>\n

    		 <\/p>\n

    Types of Workers<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    1<\/td>\nOrganization of Information<\/td>\nManagers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    2<\/td>\nTransmission of Information<\/td>\nSecretaries, \u00a0Telephone \u00a0Operators, \u00a0P\u2026\u2026\u2026Workers, Journalist, Educators, Technical Sale people, Database<\/p>\n

    Vendors, Information Technologist<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    3<\/td>\nInformation Storage and Retrieval<\/td>\nFiling\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Clarks,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Librarians,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Information\/Knowledge workers, Computer Programmer, Database developers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    4<\/td>\nCreation of new information<\/p>\n

    or New Patterns of Information<\/td>\n

    		Scientists,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Social\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Scientists,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Artists,\u00a0\u00a0 Statisticians,<\/p>\n

    Architects, Designers, Economists.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    5<\/td>\nApplication of Information<\/p>\n

    to solve particular problems<\/td>\n

    		Lawyers, \u00a0Doctors, \u00a0Counsellors, \u00a0Accountants, \u00a0Policy<\/p>\n

    Makers, Corporate Decision Makers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    6<\/td>\nReception of Information<\/td>\nStudents, Common People<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    7<\/td>\nProduction and packaging of<\/p>\n

    information<\/td>\n

    		Publishers, Information Analysts, Information Service<\/p>\n

    Provider, System Designers, Computer programmers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    8<\/td>\nManipulation of Information<\/td>\nAdvertising \u00a0Personnel, \u00a0Public \u00a0Relation \u00a0Personnel,<\/p>\n

    Media Personnel<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Table 1: Different Types of Workers and their roles in Knowledge Society<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    This provides an overview of the changing role of the Information intermediaries.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    7.\u00a0 Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The present Module discusses about the implications of all round information explosion restricting the access of scientists, researchers, etc., to the required information. This need has brought in individuals or groups known as information intermediaries who would serve as link between the producers and users of information including the traditional reference librarians. It briefly describes the characteristics and functions of information intermediaries. It further discusses about both the types of profit-making and non-profit making information intermediaries.It highlights the need and functions of various types of information intermediaries such as information brokers, information consultants, technological gatekeepers, online vendors, information filters, invisible colleges etc.It also discusses about expert systems which have recently developed as a result of the advances in information and communication technologies and have been operating successfully in various fields of knowledge including libraries and information centres.Also, presents an overview of the changing role of information intermediaries in the 21st Century.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    8.\u00a0 References<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    1. Alberico, Ralph and Micco, Mary. Expert Systems for Reference and Information Retrieval.<\/p>\n

    New York:<\/p>\n

    2. Allen, T. J. \u201cOrganizational Aspects of Information Flow.\u201dAslib Proceedings 20, no. 11 (1968): 433-54.<\/p>\n

    3. Chamberlain, Carol.\u201cThe Gatekeeper and Information.\u201d Library Acquisition: Practice and Theory 15, (1991): 265-69.<\/p>\n

    4. Crane, Diana. Invisible Colleges: Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities.<\/p>\n

    Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.<\/p>\n

    5. Duckitt, P. \u201cThe Intermediary Today and Tomorrow\u201d. Aslib Proceedings 36, no. 2 (1984): 79-86.<\/p>\n

    6. Gilchrist, Alan. \u201cLibrary and Information Science Consultancy in the United Kingdom\u201d.inEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1999. Vol. 64, p. 211-18.<\/p>\n

    7.\u00a0 Grove, Ralph F. \u201cExpert Systems Development on the Internet\u201d. InEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2002. Vol. 72, p 192-206.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      \n
    1. Johnson, Alice. \u201cInformation Brokers\u201d.inEncyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and others. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991. Vol.48, p. 171-76.<\/li>\n
    2. Kronick, David A. \u201cThe Commerce of Letters: Networks and \u201cInvisible Colleges\u201d in Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe\u201d. The Library Quarterly 71, no. 1 (2001): 28-43.<\/li>\n
    3. Londrie, Keith. \u201cWhat is an Information Broker?.\u201d Retrieved from http:\/\/www.info-<\/a> resource.com\/<\/a><\/li>\n
    4. Rugee, Sue and Glossbrenner, Alfred. The Information Broker\u2019s Handbook. 2nded. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995.<\/li>\n
    5. Storier, T, The Wealth of Information: A Profile of the Post Industrial Economy, London: Methven, 1983<\/li>\n
    6. Wagner, Caroline S. The New Invisible College: Science for Development. Washington D.C.: Brookling Press, 2008.<\/li>\n
    7. Ward, Sandra. \u201cInformation Professionals for the Next Millennium.\u201d Journal of Information Science 25, no. 4 (1999): 239-47.<\/li>\n
    8. Whelan, Eoin, et al. \u201cHow Internet Technologies Impact Information Flows in R&D; Reconsidering the Technological Gatekeepers\u201d. Retrieved from http:\/\/eprints.nuim.ie\/3017\/1\/R&D_Management_Journal_ <\/a>Paper.pdf<\/span><\/li>\n
    9. Womack, Ryan. \u201cInformation Intermediaries and Optimal Distribution.\u201d Library and Information Science Research 24, no. 2 (2002): 129-35.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"menu_order":24,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["prof-sewa-singh"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[63],"license":[],"class_list":["post-109","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-prof-sewa-singh"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":230,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions\/230"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=109"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/lisp4\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=109"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}