17 Online Information Seeking Behaviour

Dr Bhaskara Mukhrjee

  1. Introduction

In some previous modules we have learnt the information seeking behavior, conceptually and by using some model. In this present technology enabled era however, the information environment have changed drastically. The pursuit of knowledge has been revolutionized, mainly through the vast expansion of data accessible via the Internet. It is therefore quite pertinent to understand what are the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of clients in technology enabled era, and what are the factors that influence or shape their information needs and information-seeking behaviour? The purpose of this study is to discuss the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of library clients in web environment.

  1. Definition of Terms

   Online is the condition of being connected to a network of computers or other devices. The term is frequently used to describe someone who is currently connected to the Internet.

 

Information refers to the ideas or thoughts that individual seek, contribute, or obtain from various formal and informal channels, study and research.

 

Information seeking is a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge, (Case, 2002).

 

Ingwersen and Järvelin (2005:384) define information behaviour as the ―human behaviour dealing with generation, communication, use and other activities concerned with information, such as, information-seeking behaviour and interactive IR [information retrieval].‖

 

Information seeking behaviour ―encompasses information behaviour as well as the totality of unintended or passive behaviour….as well as purposive behaviour that do not involve seeking, such as avoiding information.‖(Case, 2002)

  1. Introducing Concept: Information Seeking Behaviour

Understanding information and communication behaviors of scientists for designing effective and efficient information systems and services has been an important research topic since the 1960s. According to Prof. T.D. Wilson ‗information behavior‘ is meant those activities a person may engage in when identifying his or her own needs for information, searching for such information in any way, and using or transferring that information. In words of Krikelas (1983) ―information-seeking behavior begins when someone realizes the existence of an information need and ends when that need is believed to have been satisfied‖. The seeker turns to formal and informal sources of information and is ultimately satisfied or dissatisfied with the end result (Wilson, 1999). The concept on ‗information behaviour‘ came before the term ‗information science‘ was coined. Probably, it was Royal Society Scientific Information Conference of 1948 , when a number of papers on the information behaviour of scientists and technologists were presented. Of course, the term information behaviour was not used in the papers, which were generally about document and library use, but the origins are clearly there. This was seven years before Chris Hanson (of Aslib) coined the term ‗information science‘ and ten years before the establishment of the Institute of Information Scientists in the UK, the first professional society devoted to the field. The concept ―information seeking behaviour‖ refers to behavior or attitude of seekers to seek, obtain or contribute the ideas or thoughts from informal or formal discussion, investigation or study. The theories of information-seeking behavior tend to differentiate between immediate needs, the related activities of which are deemed to be ―information-seeking behaviour,‖ and deferred needs, which many researchers have termed ―information gathering‖ (Krikelas, 1983). According to Wilson (1997), who is regarded as a founder of the study of information behavior, in the process of information seeking at least three facets must be considered. The focus is not only on the perceived need for information or on factors that affect the individual‘s response to their need but rather on the processes or actions, including information uses, involved in responding to the need (Dresang, 2005).

  1. Wilson Model of Information Seeking Behaviour

The very well known first model by T.D. Wilson (1981) on information seeking behavior is as follow

 

The model suggests that ―information-seeking behaviour arises as a consequence of a need perceived by an information user, who, in order to satisfy that need, makes demands upon formal or informal information sources or services, which result in success or failure to find relevant information. If successful, the individual then makes use of the information found and may either fully or partially satisfy the perceived need – or, indeed, fails to satisfy the need and has to reiterate the search process. The model also shows that part of the information seeking behaviour may involve other people through information exchange and that information perceived as useful may be passed to other people, as well as being used (or instead of being used) by the person himself or herself‖ (Wilson, 1999). In gist Wilson‘s model is clearly what may be described as a macro-model or a model of the gross information-seeking behaviour and it suggests how information needs arise and what may prevent (and, by implication, aid) the actual search for information.

  1. Ellis’ Model of Information Seeking Behaviour

The information seeking behavior in the social sciences and humanities was first explained by David Ellis. He explained how they search for and interact with the materials, as opposed to the sources they use and the manner in which the materials are obtained. Ellis (1989) described six fundamental characteristics of information seeking behaviour practiced by social scientists: starting, chaining, browsing, differentiating, monitoring, and extracting

  1. Major Issues in Ellis Model
  • Starting: refers to the information-seeking patterns of researchers beginning work in a new area., for example, asking some knowledgeable colleague;
  • Chaining: describes the process of following chains of citations or other forms of referential connection between materials or sources identified during ―starting‖ activities;
  • Browsing: is defined as ―semi-directed or semi-structured searching in an area of potential interest.‖(Ellis [11, p. 187])
  • Differentiating: using known differences in information sources as a way of filtering the amount of information obtained;
  • Monitoring: is an activity limited to keeping up-to-date or current awareness searching;
  • Extracting: refers to ―the activity of going through a particular source and selectively identifying relevant materials from that source.‖;
  • Verifying: checking the accuracy of information;
  • Ending: which may be defined as ‗tying up loose ends‘ through a final search.

It should also be noted that Ellis conducted another study about information-seeking patterns of academic researchers in 1993. Ellis‘s comparison of the different activities reported by social scientists led to the conclusion that these six categories were sufficient to represent the different information-seeking patterns of researchers.

  1. Information seeking activities and Ellis Model

In nutshell, the information seeking activities can be classified into: general activities pertaining to long-term research needs and task-based activities corresponding to project lifecycle.

 

General Information seeking Activities Pertaining to Long-term Research Needs

Monitoring: Keeping abreast of developments in research areas.

Browsing:Looking casually (semi-directed searching) for information of research interests.

Managing:Storing and organizing information objects found in personal collection.

Archiving:Depositing one’s own publications to open access institutional or disciplinary repositories.

Task-based Information seeking Activities Corresponding to Project Lifecycle

Starting:Initial searching for relevant information at the onset of a project.

Searching:Focused and systematic searching for information through specific resources.

Accessing:Obtaining a physical copy of the needed information objects.

Chaining:Following references (backward) or citations (forward) for additional information.

Ending:Stopping information activities; producing research output; disseminating.

  1. Wilson-Ellis Mix Model of Information Seeking Behaviour

In 1981, Wilson also provides a revised model adding barriers. Wilson‘s second model of 1981 is based upon two main propositions: first, that information need is not a primary need, but a secondary need that arises out of needs of a more basic kind; and second, that in the effort to discover information to satisfy a need, the enquirer is likely to meet with barriers of different kinds. This model is shown in a simplified version (which also shows the search behaviours defined by Ellis in Figure 2).

 

  1. Electronic Information seeking behaviour

In the book Being Digital, Nicholas Negroponte (1995) of the MIT Media Lab wrote, “Computing is not about computers any more. It is about living” (p. 8). Negroponte and Dresang purport that the impact of the microchip extends beyond direct contact with digital media to influence how one gives, receives, and creates information. The digital environment is ubiquitous; it permeates everyday life. Increasingly the internet has become a key information source, and people find information online by browsing webpages, posting a question to a Q&A site, or using IM or email to contact someone directly. Search engine use is the most popular approach to online information seeking (Fallows 2008). However, the recent rise in popularity of social networking sites, such as Facebook, MySpace, and LinkedIn, has introduced a new option for finding information online –posing a question to one’s network.

  1. Ellis Model in Web environment

Present day researches on information seeking behaviour has focused on attitudes and preferences, search processes, modes and skills, and perceived relevance of results. Most of the information-seeking behavior categories in Ellis‘s model are supported by capabilities available in common web browsers. Thus, an individual could initiate surfing the web from one of a few favourite websites (starting); follow hypertext links to related information resources in both backward and forward linking directions (chaining); scan the web pages of the sources selected (browsing); bookmark useful sources for future reference and visits (differentiating); subscribe to e-mail based services that alert the user of new information or development (monitoring); and search a particular source or site for all information on that site on a particular topic (extracting).

 

Meho and Tibbo (2003) revised Ellis’s model by adding three information activities: accessing, networking, and information managing. They also proposed a new stage model by grouping the activities into three broader, overlapping categories: searching (starting, chaining, browsing, monitoring, differentiating, extracting, networking); processing (chaining, extracting, differentiating, verifying, information managing, synthesizing, analyzing, and writing); accessing (decision making). Ending was treated as an assumed stage.

  1. Steps in Online Information Seeking Process

The process of online information seeking can be done formally or informally. In formal way a seeker consults various formal sources like search engines, e-journals, databases etc in unidirectional way. However, in informal way a seeker explores various informal means like social network sites, blogs, e-forums etc. in multidirectional way. Caroline Kuhlthau’s information search model, developed from case studies and student papers, identifies six stages of the information search process: 1) task initiation, 2) topic selection; 3) pre-focus exploration, 4) focus formulation, 5) information collection; and 6) search closure and writing initiation. While Kuhlthau’s original study focused on twelfth graders, she tested her model among academic library users and found that it fits well with a few changes – the most significant being a greater emphasis on periodicals among college students.The overall seeking process can be explained as follows:

  1. A. Formal Ways (by Consulting Formal Sources) 
  1. Identifying keywords of a subject or idea
  2. Develop search strategy for identified terms
  3. Use of Internet tools
  • Search engines
  • Databases: Subject specific (eg. IAR Report), and general (DIALOGUE)
  • Subject gateways (eg. Infolibrarian, INFOPORT, Bubl )
  • Search through aggregators (Web of Science, SCOPUS)
  • Online journals
  1. Price accessed (ScienceDirect, Sage, Emerald )
  2. Open Access (DOAJ)

4. Saving results to permanent media or taking printout, if appeared results are satisfactory

  1. A.1 Internet-enabled Formal Information Resources
  1. Online library catalogue: Online library catalogue has evolved from a tool to access library collections to providing links to various databases (free or subscribed), e-journals, or other library catalogues (supported by federated search).
  2. Database: Many  bibliographic  databases,  numerical  databases,  full  text  databases  throughlibrary subscription or free are now available online via Web.
  3. E-Journal: Two kinds of electronic journals co-exist: (i) with a print equivalent (evolved); (ii) pure e-journal (born in electronic format)
  4. Digital library: The most diverse notions and often mentioned as a known portal, consortia, repository, and databases.

Studies of how young people use information technology – generally in the form of the Internet – in their everyday lives began appearing in the late 1990s. William (1999) noted, for example, that more that 50% of a state-school class of primary children he interviewed turned to the Web to help with homework. On the same theme, Hay (2006) opines that ‗Net Generation kids tend to be far more comfortable with and more proficient using information technologies than are their parents or teachers‘. More specifically, Baird and Fisher (2005) claim that young people are ‗technologically savvy‘ and ‗especially adept at quickly scanning a web page and deciding which links hold the promise of producing a ‗mother load‘ of information or valuable content‘. Lorenzen (2001) found that high school students were similarly exploiting the Internet, and noted that sources appeared to be ‗official‘ – online encyclopaedias, newspaper sites, institutional sites. Levin and Arafeh, (2002) claimed that young people use the Internet for ‗dozens of different education-related uses‘, including as a ‗virtual tutor … textbook and reference library … (and) study group‘.

  1. B. Informal Ways (by Consulting Informal Sources)

Social media have become increasingly popular among individuals, especially among young adults. Obviously, the technology has moved on and there are now more ways in which these things can be undertaken. The Internet is now available on an ever widening array of platforms and devices, such as ‗PDA, the Tablet PC, and the Ipod‘. It is perhaps, therefore, not surprising that the Internet is now used more than the TV (Synovate,2007). Additionally, social networking, heralded as the innovation set to ‗rapidly change the face of education‘ He also pointed that the computer is now the most popular device for listening to music (stated by 81% of an unstated number of respondents), although only 25% listened online. Downloading (41%) has now overtaken music purchased in shops (33%) in people’s collections. In sum, it appears that from the beginning of its appearance in the home, the Internet has been used for educational and recreational purposes, and as a communication medium.

  1. Through Instant Messaging: A real-time communication tool using text chat, voice and video between individuals.,
  2. Listserv: An asynchronous communication tool to send messages to a large number of subscribers via email.
  3. Using Wiki: A Web-based collaborative tool: users can create, remove, and edit contents; changes are logged.
  4. Interacting with social network site
  5. Participating in Blog (A Web-based diary on a particular subject and maintained by a blogger (person/organization).
  6. FTP: A tool for transferring files between two computers.
  7. Being members of Forums etc.

Acquiring quality information is important in the academic context, as it may have significant impact on students‘ academic performance. In a study Kim (2013) revealed that most social media platforms are used by college students not only for social interactions or entertainment purposes, but also for information seeking in the academic context. Students‘ major fields or disciplines were found to have significant impact on the use of different social media platforms. Students in science and engineering tended to use Wikis and Social Q&A more often than those in humanities or social sciences. Whereas, in social sciences Microblogs are more frequently used than those in science and engineering and in humanities students use Blogs, online reviews more frequently than other students.

  1. 1. Advantages of Online Information Seeking

   1. Availability in Electronic Format—The amount of information available in electronic format has vastly increased over recent years.

2. Accessibility—Most electronic information resources are available anywhere, anytime to anyone with a computer, and participants appreciated this ease and convenience.

3. Usability—The biggest advantage of online sources are the usability features of electronic information resources. Electronic resources are convenient, easy to use and easy to access. Such sources are convenient with saving and printing, the frequency of updating and the powerful potential of search functions. They especially appreciated the ease of sharing information and sending papers to other researchers.

4. Efficacy—Electronic information resources are to be timesaving, convenient, and effective.

 

12.2 Hurdles in Online information seeking

 

12.2.1. Lack of Availability—Because of restricted access, online information does not cover full texts in electronic format in every discipline. For example, the amount of electronic information resources available to humanities researchers is low, compared to that available to social sciences researchers. Information collected from this study supports the notion that the creation of digital archives for infrequently used materials would be an enormous benefit to certain faculty.

 

12.2.2 Lack of Accessibility—Electronic resource availability varies by institution. The library‘s services, the individual‘s awareness of the resources and the person‘s research skills also influence accessibility of information.

 

12.2.3 Usability Issues—Content organization, interface, and choice of computer system all affect the usage of electronic information resources. The well-designed library homepage, good information literacy skills and user education are all important.

 

12.2.4 Uneven Source Quality—The electronic information resources provided sometimes are not accurate, reliable, and high-quality information. Before selection one should critically examine its authority, genuineness and authenticity.

 

12.2.5 Lack of Awareness—Knowing the right source with right information is difficult. Lack of knowledge about source creates seeking of misinformation which leads to low precision in research findings.

  1. Summary

Information behaviour may be defined as the more general field of investigation with information-seeking behaviour being seen as a sub-set of the field, particularly concerned with the variety of methods people employ to discover and gain access to information resources. The online information searching behaviour being defined as a sub-set of information-seeking, particularly concerned with the interactions between information user (with or without an intermediary) and computer-based information systems, of which information retrieval systems for textual data may be seen as one type. In this module we have introduced some important models of information seeking and also attempts to explain their relevance in online environment. At a conceptual level, these models provide an integrated approach to understanding the way library clients behave in selecting information appropriate to their needs in online environment. Overall, these models not only describes the flow of information seeking activities but acknowledges the influence a client‘s cognitive/affective state has in moderating this flow as well as the context and time in where and when this occurs. If library and information scientists could build up a body of knowledge about the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of their clients, it could be possible to design a unique information system on the Internet that suits their specific information needs.

  1. References:
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