14 Models of Information Seeking Behavior

Dr Bhaskara Mukhrjee

  1. Introduction

Information is a vital resource needed by human being in different walks of life. Information can be defined as processed data, which helps in decision making, increase our knowledge, improve our mental thinking and overall change the societal status of nation. We are living in information era where our day to day activities are very much depended on the information. Information is needed by human being to resolve their problems and fulfill necessary tasks.Information seeking behavior deals with the investigation of methods and strategies followed by a user or how a user navigates through various sources available to get his/her information requirements. In this contemporary period study of information needs and use is not beneficial for users only but for the developers of information systems also. Information seeking behavior has implications in all fields, but as libraries main objective is to adequately satisfy the information needs of users, it is a vibrant research topic in the field of library and information science.

  1. Information Behavior

The term “information behavior” was first used in late 1990s, but the concept of “information needs and uses” originated near about in 1960s. T. D. Wilson defines, information behavior as “the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information seeking, and information use. Thus, it includes face-to-face communication with others, as well as the passive reception of information as in, for example, watching TV advertisements, without any intention to act on the information  given.”(Wilson,2000). Information behavior a term which deals a long range of information related phenomena like seeking, searching, browsing etc.

  1. Information Seeking

Information seeking is undertaken to identify a message that satisfies a perceived need (Wright and Guy, 1997). In words of Ikoja–Odongo (2000) this activity may be defined as actively or passively done when taking steps to satisfy a felt need.A number of researches on information seeking have been conducted to identify how individuals go about finding the sources that they need in order to satisfy their information needs. These researches resulted in a number of models like Ellis‟s model (1993), Wilson’s model (1981, 1986, 1999), and Kuhlthaus‟s model (1992). These models are based on a number of steps can be followed in seeking information or to explain how most relevant information could be sought systematically.

  1. Information Seeking Behavior

Information seeking behavior deals with the approach followed by the user to get its needed information. The approach of user includes determining all possible sources to get the needed information and selecting the best among them.Information seeking behavioris driven by the information seeking by a user as a result of a need to satisfy some goal. Case also defines information seeking as “a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge” (Case, 2008). Information seeking behavior includes all approaches of users from generating, communicating and seeking information that is relevant to the information need. In the process ofinformation seeking, the user may exploit traditional information systems or sources (such as books, periodicals, libraries etc.), or computerized information systems. It is very important to know the information need and seeking behavior of a user to develop library collection, improving existing services and providing new services to meet the information needs of users. A thorough understanding of user information needs and information seeking behavior is fundamental to the provision of successful information services (Zhang, 1998). The study of information needs and behavior dates back to 1948 when Royal Society Scientific Information Conference was held and a number of papers on the information behaviour of scientists and technologists were presented. In this conference, the term information behavior was not used directly in the presented papers, but the origins are clearly there. Seven years later from this conference Chris Hanson coined the term „information science‟ and after ten years the Institute of Information Scientists in the UK was established, the first professional society devoted to the field. Some of the earlier studies related to this topic were, McDiarmid’s study The Library Survey in 1940, which referred to various kinds of surveys – about how people used libraries and the needs they sought to satisfy (although, interestingly, there is no mention of information needs in the book) – dating back to 1916 and with a spate of studies in the 1920s and 1930s (AYRES and McKINNIE, 1916).The concept “information seeking behaviour” refers to behavior or attitude of seekers to seek, obtain or contribute the ideas or thoughts from informal or formal discussion, investigation, or study. The theories of information-seeking behavior tend to differentiate between immediate needs, the related activities of which are deemed to be “information-seeking behavior,” and deferred needs, which many researchers have termed “information gathering” (Krikelas, 1983). According to Wilson (1997), who is regarded as a founder of the study of information behavior, in the process of information seeking at least three facets must be considered. The focus is not only on the perceived need for information or on factors that affect the individual‟s response to their need but rather on the processes or actions, including information uses, involved in responding to the need. Over the prevailing period since the Royal Society Conference so many papers and research reports have been produced on the topic of user needs, information needs, and information-seeking behavior.

  1. Information Seeking Behavior Models

Information seeking behavior is a process in which certain steps or approaches are followed by a user to get needed piece of information. Different scholars have identified these steps of users in their own way and arranged it in a framework to formulate various information seeking behavior models. Robert Taylor‟s model (1968) has been instrumental for the training of reference librarians. He identifies four levels of information seeking: (1) the identification of a visceral need, or “vague sort of dissatisfaction” that is unexpressed; (2) the formulation of a conscious need that is expressed as “an ambiguous and rambling statement” and which sometimes results in communicating the need to another person; (3) the construction of a formalized need, expressed as a “qualified and rational” statement of the need; and finally, (4) the establishment of a compromised need, which is a query that is expressed in terms that fit the organization of the information system. Erdelez (1995) in his academic dissertation provide an initial understanding of information encountering, a form of information behavior that involves accidental acquisition of information. He found that respondents encountered information while performing both information and non-information related activities. There was a change in the types of feelings and thoughts experienced by respondents before and after information encountering. The respondents most often encountered information when in environments that specifically provide information services, but also in environments where information service was not the primary function. Information encountered by respondents included both interest and problem types of information, including present, past, and future problems, and also both active and passive problems. Reijo Savolainen in 1995 elaborate the role of social and cultural factors that affect people‟s way of preferring and using information sources in every-day settings. He explained even though individuals select and use various sources to solve problems the sources preference and use patterns are ultimately socially conditioned.

 

Gloria Leckie (1996) suggested that only through and thorough understanding of complex wok roles and their associated tasks will be able to truly understand why, how and when information seeking may occur. This study was based on meta-review of the LIS literature and literature of number of other professional fields. Williamson (1998) emphasizes that in the field of everyday life information, information is often incidentally acquired rather than purposefully sought. In order to gain extensive understanding the seeking behavior he has interviewed 202 participants. Foster‟s (2004) nonlinear model of information-seeking behavior contrasts with earlier stage models of information behavior and represents a potential cornerstone for a shift toward a new perspective for understanding user information behavior. The model is based on the findings of a study on interdisciplinary information-seeking behavior conducted through a naturalistic inquiry approach using interviews of 45 academics. In 2008, Savolainen explained people’s information practices draw on their stocks of knowledge that form the habitual starting point of information seeking, use, and sharing. To judge the value of information available in external sources like newspapers and the Internet, people construct information source horizons. They set information sources in order of preference and suggest information seeking paths, such as “first check the net, then visit the library.”

 

In the following few paragraphs we have explained few more models in detail which are very predominant in domain of information science.

 

6.1   Wilson’s Models of Information seeking behavior

Fig. 1. Wilsons’ Model of Information seeking behavior (1981).

 

Information seeking behavior models are dedicated to information seeking and searching behavior of user. This was the first model proposed by T. D. Wilson, regarded as the father of information seeking behavior, in 1981 to frame out different areas covered by a user during information seeking behavior. This model clearly shows that the information seeking behavior arise as an outcome of information need perceived by a user. Information seeking behavior starts with the demand of the user upon different information sources and systems (formal or informal). This seeking behavior results in two situations either in success or in failure; if the user get success in finding information, then found information is used, exchanged and transferred to others; if the result is failure in satisfy the need, then the searching process starts again. The model focuses on the involvement of other people in information seeking behavior through information exchange and transfer process. Wilson model can be described as broad depiction of information seeking behavior, which shows how information need arises and what are the simple steps followed to search it.

 

Wilson’s Second Model of Information Seeking Behavior:

Fig. 2. Wilson’s Model of Information seeking behavior (1994).

 

This information seeking behavior model is based on two main propositions first, that information need is not a primary need, but a secondary need that arises from a need of more basic kind and second in order to find information to satisfy that need the user have to face certain barriers. Information need arises in user due to personal circumstances, social role and environment in which the individual lives.This model was prepared in 1994 by incorporating various steps of Ellis‟ model. It also displayed the physiological, affective, and cognitive needs that give rise to information seeking behavior. The factors that are responsible for arising information needs can also be barriers to an individual‟s search for information.

 

.2  Dervin’s Sense-Making Model:

 

Brenda Dervins‟ sense making theory developed in 1983 its not simply a model; she defines it as „a set of assumptions, a theoretic perspective, a methodological approach, a research methods and a practice designed to cope up with information perceived as, …‟a human tool designed for making sense of a reality assumed to be both chaotic and orderly.‟

 

Sense making model has mainly four constituents elements- first is situation in time and space, which stands for the conditions in which information need arises, second is gap stands for the showing the difference between contextual situation and desired situation and the outcome which is the result of sense making, which reduces the gap between situation and outcome (Wilson,1999). The bridge across the gap is constructed using strategies. It is explicitly proposed here that all the different kinds of information behaviour identified can be sense-making strategies, that is, strategies undertaken by the individual to make sense, or to maintain sense, in an unruly world. To bridge the gap, people can seek information. This allows them to change their internal reality, until it more closely fits what we are calling ‘external reality’. They can also close the gap by changing ‘external reality’ until it more closely fits their views. For instance, a person may set out to change what their community considers to be ‘true’ or ‘acceptable’: such a course may be taken by a researcher developing a new theory or by a person who stands accused of something. In this situation, spreading or disputing information may be effective information behaviour. Depending on individual motivation, a person may create information to build a bridge or to make the gap smaller. Avoiding information may be seen as a way of ignoring the gap or as a way of keeping it small.

 

6.3  Ellis’sModel of Information Seeking Behaviour

 

Ellis’s model of information seeking behavior is a set of stages followed during information seeking by a user. It refers to the way a user search information and use it. These features are named and defined below:

  1. Starting: selection of sources for seeking the needed information, asking knowledgeable persons, etc.;
  2. Chaining: following the inklings such as citations, footnotes, bibliographies obtained from the initial sources of information;
  3. Browsing: ‘semi-directed or semi-structured searching’; looking through tables of contents, list of titles, subject headings etc. are also considered as simple browsing.
  4. Differentiating: differentiating among found sources on the basis of nature and quality of information available in the sources.
  5. Monitoring: keeping up-to-date or current awareness searching; i.e. regular checking the updates of new information from various sources like, journal, newspaper, conferences, magazine etc.
  6. Extracting: selectively identifying relevant material in an information source; selecting most relevant information source among found ones and extracting need satisfying information from that source.
  7. Verifying: checking the accuracy of information; verifying the information obtained from various sources.
  8. Ending: which may be defined as ‘tying up loose ends’ through a final search. Ending is the end of the information seeking, i.e. information searching is complete at this stage and user is satisfied with the information obtained.

The strength of this model is that it is based on empirical research and has been tested through various studies. In this model Starting must initiate a process and that Ending must end it. It also seems reasonable to suggest that Verifying is a penultimate stage in a process and that Extracting must follow on from specific search behaviour such as Browsing. Indeed, drawing attention to this fact, leads to the conclusion that Extracting is not information behaviour of the same kind as Browsing, or Chaining or Monitoring. It further suggests that Differentiating is also a different kind of behaviour: browsing, chaining and monitoring are search procedures, whereas differentiating is a filtering process and extracting may be seen as an action performed on the information sources.

 

The remaining behaviours do not necessarily take place in a specific sequence and may be initiated in different sequences at different times in the overall search process. Ellis’s account, therefore, in terms of the different kinds of features it embodies, appears to sit between the micro-analysis of search behaviour (starting, chaining, extracting, verifying, ending) and a more macro-analysis of information behaviour generally (browsing, monitoring, differentiating). (Wilson, 1999)

If these points are accepted, it is then possible to suggest a diagrammatic presentation of the model:

 

 

6.4  Kuhlthou’s Model of Information Seeking Behaviour

 

Kuhlthous model can be described as phenomenological model rather than cognitive model. The model is a set of stages followed to obtain needed information which are Initiation, Selection, Exploration, Formulation, Collection and Presentation. Initiation is the first step of the model, which refers to the stage where a user recognizes that its time to begin a task. At this stage the subject feels very anxious and uncertain and discovers that he had a very limited knowledge. Second stage is selection, at this stage the user become slightly aware of the area of interest or topic to observe and learn. And the subject feels less anxious but not very much certain as the key area of focus is still not very clear. The third stage is exploration; here the user found the topic about which the user has a little knowledge. The user starts exploring on the topic as far as exploration is done the anxiety and uncertainty of user reduced. Formation, the fourth stage of the process where the user decides the topic of focus to be further explored and research on that. Next stage is collection, in which the user collects significant information through various search tools and gets a sense of direction for research and the topic become clearer. This stage increases the level of confidence in user. Presentation, which is the sixth stage in which all collected data and information is accumulated together and presented as a final report of the total process of seeking information. At this stage if the user succeed in his goal then the process results in satisfaction, but if the user fails or not get the needed information, huge disappointment is caused to the user. Last stage of this model is assessment, deals with self assessment of user which develops a sense of accomplishmentand increased self awareness. The different stages of Kuhlthous‟ model are displayed with the help of flow diagram which is as follows:

 

Fig. 5 Kuhlthaus’ Model of information seeking behavior

 

Kuhlthau postulates in her model (and confirms by empirical research) about a process of the gradual refinement of the problem area, with information searching of one kind or another going on while that refinement takes place. Thus, a successive search process is implicit in Kuhlthau’s analysis of the search activity. Although Kuhlthau’s early work was a series of longitudinal studies of high school students, more recently she has shown the applicability of the model to the work of a securities analyst. (Kuhlthau, 1997) (Wilson, 1999).

  1. Nature of Information Seeking Behavior:The nature of information seeking behavior is explorative, as it is concerned with exploration of information sources and techniques to fill the gap between information need and information. Wilson (Wilson, 2006) investigated the nature of ISB in the digital information world. Author explored the behavioral pattern with special reference to electronic databases and the World Wide Web.
  1. Summary

The concept of information-seeking and information behaviour models that are relevant to a study on the information needs and information-seeking behavior are discussed. It is evident from the discussion above that each model represents a different but also an overlapping or similar approach to information-seeking behavior research. Wilson model provide the required frameworks for information user behavior research and contribute to a better understanding of users‟ information behavior. Ellis‟ (1989) model and Kuhlthau‟s (1993) information process model, whereas, characterize the information-seeking patterns of information users. This characterization of the different information-seeking processes such as browsing or monitoring can assist in acquiring an understanding of how seekers go about finding information. Dervin‟s (1983) Sense-making approach‟s focuses on the need for information experienced by users within the context of their personal situations. This shifts the focus from the information-seeking processes characterized by Ellis, Kuhlthau. Common elements or factors reflected in all the models are that information usage is a process involving multiple phases. These phases include the identification of information needs, the decision to use information, selecting and acquiring information sources, finding and gathering, interpreting and processing the information, and putting the information to use. The outcome of the information seeking process is the utilization of the required information to complete a task.

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