6 Assessment of Information Needs of Different User Groups

Dr Anil Kumar Dhiman

What is Information?

The term Information is derived from two Latin words ‘Forma’ and ‘Formation’ which mean is to give a shape to something and forming a pattern. Information is considered basic need which can be found in primary, secondary and tertiary sources. But what an information really is? Madden (2000) mentions that information has occupied the thoughts of information scientists for a long time almost certainly since before the term ‘information science’ was coined in 1955.

It is generally seen that information, data and the knowledge are used synonymously but they are different.

Data – Data are the raw material for information but they can be expressed numerically and are quantified, quantifiable, tabular or objective. Data are also repetitive in nature.
Information – Information is the raw material for knowledge but like data, information is not highly repetitive or can be quantified or quantifiable. It may be also characterized as narrative, subjective, qualitative, textual or descriptive.
Knowledge – When information is adequately assimilated, it becomes knowledge.

Similarly Needs, Wants, Demand and Requirement are used interchangeable but they are differ.

Needs – This is the want of something, which one cannot well do without.
Wants – A state of fact of being without or having an insufficient quantity, absence or deficiency of necessities.
Demand – It is required, asking for what is due or asking for something.
Requirement – It is a need, a thing needed or a necessary condition.

Thus, the uses of above terms clearly reflect the fact that there is a lack of exclusivity and they are used interchangeably, though they differ from each other.While Random House Dictionary (1983) communicated or received concerning a particular through communication, research, instruction.mentions that information is “knowledge fact or circumstances: any knowledge gained Webster’s Dictionary (1989) defines information as the news or intelligence communicated by words or in writing, facts or data, knowledge derived from reading or instruction gathered in any way.

Information is defined variously by other scientists as given below:

Weisman (1972) has defined information as knowledge, intelligence, fact or data that can be used, transferred, or communicated. It can be derived from experience, observation, interaction and reading.

To Bhattacharyya (1978) the information is the message conveyed or intended to be conveyed by a systematized body of ideas, or its acceptable substitutes.

Feynman (1996) says that “Information is not simply a physical property of a message: it is a property of the message and your knowledge about it.”

McCreadie and Rice (1999 a,b) have presented information concepts under following heads after reviewing fifty years summary of information work.

Information is a Representation of Knowledge – Information is stored knowledge. Traditionally storage medium has been books but increasingly electronic media are becoming important.
Information as Data in Environment – Information can be obtained from a range of environmental stimuli and phenomena; not at all of which are intended to convey a message but which can be informative when appropriately interpreted.
Information as Part of Communication – Meanings are people rather than in words or data. Timings and social factors play significant role in the processing and interpretation of information.
Information as a Resource or Commodity – Information is transmitted in a message from sender to receiver. The receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender. There may be added value as the information is disseminated or exchanged.

Madden (2000) is of the opinion that the information should be “a stimulus originating in one system that affects the interpretation by another system of either the second system’s relationship to the first or of the relationship the two systems share with a given environment”.

Types of Information

Information has been divided into following types (Shera, 1972):

Conceptual Information that is related to the idea, theories, hypotheses about the relationship which exists among the variables.
Empirical Information that is related to experience and data of research which may be drawn from oneself or through the communication from others.
Directive Information that is used for coordination and for enabling effective group activities.
Policy Information that is focused on the decision making process
Stimulatory Information that is motivated by oneself or environmentally derived.
Procedural Information that includes the data of investigation which are obtained, manipulated and tested. It is essentially methodological and it derived from scientific attitude.

What is Information Need?

The concept of “information needs” is difficult to define, isolate and measure because it “involves a cognitive process which may operate on different levels of consciousness and hence may not be clear even to the inquirer himself (Kumar et al., 2011)”. Burnkrant (1976) proposes that need is “a cognitive representation of a future goal that is desired”. However, information need arise in a person as a reaction to a stimulus (Timmins, 2006). The stimulus can be due to major life changes, other events or life threatening or incapacitating illness and these can be perceived as a challenge to threat, depending upon the novelty, timing in life and the level of uncertainty or unpredictability about the event. Individual display two major coping mechanisms – managing the problem that is problem – focused coping and regulating their response that is emotion – focused. It is the problem – focused coping which includes information seeking where an individual tries to get help, inhibiting action and taking direct action. It is this information seeking that creates the information need.

Faibisoff and Ely (1976) mention that the term Information Need has become an umbrella under which a variety of interpretations fall. They further add that if information needs is considered as a generic concept then there are subsets which address information demand (or requirements) and information wants (or desires). There are individuals who can articulate demands and there are those who have a desire for information but are not able to specify what it is that they need. Here, the definition of information demand is easy which can refer to the demands that may be vocal or written and made to a library or to some other information system. But defining information wants is a tough task- it may be synonymous with demands or something else.

Information Need term is variously defined by different scientists time to time. A systematic review on the definition is presented below:

Paisley (1968) says information need is not a psychological state of mind rather it is an objective need oriented towards particular tasks, problems, etc.

Rawley and Turner (1978) state that information needs is “any piece of information recorded as well as unrecorded, that a scholar may need (as distinct from want, demand and use) in connection with his study, teaching and research activities.

Belkin, et al. (1982) are of the opinion that information need is anomalous state of knowledge.

Chen and Hernon (1982) define information needs as “that which arises whenever individuals find themselves in a situation requiring knowledge to deal with a situation”. It may arise in all aspects of life, the home, the office, in relationship or at work.

To Ogunrombi and Marama (1998), information need is absolutely necessary to the management of information centres/libraries. Information becomes useful only when it is packaged in the right format; delivered to the right user at the right time.

Forsetlund and Bjorndal (2001) have defined information need as “any stimulus that reduces uncertainty in a decision making process”.

However, Adewumi (2003) submits that information needs vary with users, time, purpose, location, alternatives available and so on.

Girja Kumar (1990) has defined information need in detail as “input – process – output model, where the basic components of the system are – problem, problem solving process and solution”. The problem is analyzed to determine information needs. It is indicative of the uncertainty in knowledge. Solution results in resolving of the situation by filling the gap in the knowledge.

Thus, information needs are variously stated but may be summed up as the desire of any individual or the group to locate and obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need.

Levels/Categories of Information Need

Taylor (1962) has listed four levels of information need:

The conscious and unconscious need for information not existing in the remembered experience of the investigator. In terms of the query range, this level might be called the “ideal question” — the question which would bring from the ideal system exactly what the inquirer, if he could state his need. It is the actual, but unexpressed, need for information.
The conscious mental description of an ill-defined area in decision. In this level, the inquirer might talk to someone else in the field to get an answer.
A researcher forms a rational statement of his question. This statement is a rational and unambiguous description of the inquirer’s doubts.
The question as presented to the information system.

Taylor (1991) again has identified the following eight classes of information use [need] as under:

Enlightenment
Problem Understanding
Instrumental
Factual
Conformational
Projective
Motivational and
Personal or Political

But these categories are not mutually exclusive, so that information [need] used in one class may also address the needs of other classes.

Weigts et al. (1993) have suggested the following categories of information need:

Need for new information;
Need to elucidate the information held; and
Need to confirm information held.

Thus, it is clear that despite of the varying differences in the emphasis and definition, there is consensus that information needs are linked to specific situations and that needs arise when the present level of knowledge is limited to deal with a new situation. But it is true that needs emerge from three kinds of motives as proposed by Morgan and King (1971):

Physiological motives (for example, hunger and thirst)
Unlearned motives (including curiosity and sensory stimulation), and
Social motives (the desire for affiliation, approval or status, or aggression), which accords in part with Wilson’s analysis of needs being cognitive, affective, or physiological.

Types of Information Needs

Menzel (1966) has divided the information need into following three types:

Preference to demand studies which include opinions, evaluations request for information and experiments on the impact of a service.
Use studies, which include relative contributors of communication channels and critical incident studies.
User interaction with dissemination in systems, as in studies of the flow of information at a scientific meeting

While Tague et al. (1976) has presented following types of the information needs:

Social pragmatic information needs required for coping with day-today life.
Recreation information needs.
Professional information needs.
Education information needs.

Dependency of Information Needs

Information needs of the users depend upon work activity and the availability of facilities and discipline.

Voigt (1961) has recognized three types of users’ information need dependency or approaches as under:

Current Approach – where a user deeps himself side by side with the latest development in his own field of information.
Everyday Approach – it is to meet users frequently information needs during his research investigation.
Exhaustive Approach – Where a user wants almost all the relevant literature on a problem. While according to Crawford (1978), information needs depend on:
Work activity
Discipline/ Field / Area of interest
Availability of facilities
Hierarchical position of individuals
Motivation factors for information needs
Need to take a decision
Need to seek new ideas
Need to validate the correct ones
Need to make professional contributions
Need to establish priority for discovery etc.

Thus, dependency of information needs may be of various kinds. But information needs are affected by a variety of factors (Paisley, 1968), such as:

The range of information services available.
The users to which information need be put to use.
The background, motivation, professional orientation and other individual characteristics of the user.
The social, political and economic system surrounding the user, and
The consequences of information use.

However, the need of information is a factual situation where may exist as separated interconnection between information and need. Information originates and is generated because there exists an interest and a need. The content of information is of primary concern but the information objectively realizes a function. Such information needs of users have to be satisfied (Choukhande 2001).

Information Needs of Different User Groups

It is noted that though everyone uses some information, but only fundamental and applied researchers generate new information by experiment, while relying heavily on existing data to produce new materials. Most of the scientific information are highly specialized and are recorded in a language that only a few trained people can understand. While, social scientists generally need conceptual information in print format but their focus lies on statistical information, descriptive information and analytical or interpretative information.

Information needs can be determined on the basis of the following questions (Wilson, 1977):

Does this person or group need information (Influencing factor – Social role)
Does he know he needs information (Influencing factor – Problem recognition ability)
What kind of information he need (Influencing factor – Level of performance of role, nature of specific problem environment)

However, these questions are difficult to answer because they imply that, the people who need information may not have defined the need.

7.1. Information Needs of Social Scientists

A social scientist is a person who is generally involved in teaching and research activities in any of the Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science, Psychology, History, Public Administration, and Social Work subject. But ICSSR has clubbed about eighteen categories of fields under the purview of Social Sciences, which include Economics, Commerce, Education, Management, Business Administration, Political Science, International Relations, Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, Criminology, Social Work, Anthropology, Demography, Geography, History, Law and Linguistics (Atal, 2003).

Social scientists according to Line (1969) are extremely print-oriented and they preferred statistical, methodological and conceptual information. Kumar et al. (2011) have presented a review of literature on the information sources the social scientists need. This may be consulted for details.

7.2. Information Needs of Pure / Applied Scientists

Science is an area of knowledge, typically about something in the physical world that can be explained in terms of scientific observation or the scientific method. Generally, the following branches are covered in pure science (http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0880382.html):

Physical sciences, which deal with matter and energy and allow us to describe the material universe in terms of weight, mass, volume, and other standard, objective measures.
Earth sciences, which explain the phenomena of Earth, its atmosphere, and the solar system to which it belongs.
Life sciences, which describe living organisms, their internal processes, and their relationship to each other and the environment.

Besides, there are applied sciences which include Engineering & Technology.

Bernal (1960) has identifies seven categories of uses of scientific information, they are:

Fundamental Scientific Researchers
Applied Scientific Researchers and Developers (agricultural, engineering and medical)
Technologists (agricultural and medical practitioners, architects and engineers)
Teachers, Students and Report Writers
Interested Public
Historians of Science

Scientists and technologists are in constant need of information. Voigt (1961) has identified three approaches but generally there are four different types of information requirements or approaches from them. These are:

Current approach that arises from the need to keep up, to know what other workers in the field are doing.
Everyday approach arises in the course of daily work, regularly and frequently, usually in the form of a need for some specific piece of information vital for further progress.
Exhaustive approach arises when work begins on a new investigation, and involves a check through all the relevant information on a given subject.
Catching up or Brushing up approach or Browsing approach that is unplanned, and certainly inefficient. It is nevertheless a fruitful path to information, definitely part of the scientific and technological communication system.

Sahu et al. (2014) have discussed some of the major information needs Scientists and Engineers. This document may be consulted for details.

Besides, there is general public that also need information. However, majority of the general public may not be able to conceptualize their information needs but they are to inferred and must be satisfied.

Further, children also have information needs which vary from that of young and older people. They are also to be satisfied. Recently, it is observed that information needs and information seeking behaviour is changing with the “ICT involvement” (Dhiman, 2003; Dhiman and Rani, 2012). Kadli and Kumbar (2013) have presented a very good literature review on the changing pattern of information access and information seeking behaviour in ICT environment. This must be consulted for assessing information needs and to satisfy the needs of different types of users.

Objectives of Studying Information Need

The main objectives of studying information needs according to Lipetz (1965) are:

the explanation of observed phenomena of information use or expressed needs;
the predication of instances of information use;
the control, and thereby improvement, of the utilization of information through manipulation of essential conditions;
the description of observed information use;
the definition of convenient and appropriate concepts for description and dealing with information use; and
the definition of convenient and appropriate concepts for description and dealing with information use; and

Assessing or Determining the Information Needs

Moore and Cordes (1992) define needs assessment as “any systematic approach to collecting and analyzing information about the educational needs of individuals or organizations.” Needs may be perceived, imagined, desired or thought to be important or real. Needs assessment can also be identified as a gap, the difference or distance between what is occurring in practice and what is expected (the desired outcome), or, the difference between what is and what should be.

Commenting on assessment of needs, Wilson (1981) mentions that need is a subjective experience that occurs only in the mind of the person in need and, consequently, is not directly accessible to an observer. However, there have been evolved various methods for assessing information needs of the users, but the major ones include the following.

Interview
Questionnaire
Observation

9.1. Interview

Interview simply means the conversation with a purpose. According to Young (1961) interviewing is an interactional process with others which has mutual view of each other. Interview may be self-administered, face to face or telephonic interview or may be through video conferencing. A self – administered interview can be had through self administered format which are distributed and get back via mails. These formats may also be a part of an experimental procedure or delivered and picked up by hand. While in face to face interview, the assessor can ask more questions and on specific needs. Telephonic survey exists in between interviewer and the person being interviewed, and is cheaper than face to face interview but it can be reached more widely. However, there is somewhat greater sense of anonymity over the phone, particularly if the assessor randomly selects the information seekers. Besides, now a day, interviews can be held through video conferencing. This provides quick and instant assessing of information needs.

9.2. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is the list of questions sent to a number of persons for their answers and which obtain standardized results that can be analyzed statistically. The questionnaires are also one of the important tools of assessing information needs of the users. Though they are mainly made up of a list of questions, but may also include clear instructions and space for answers or administrative details. Questionnaires are commonly used for to gather straightforward information relating to people’s need and to look upon the basic attitudes and opinions of a group of people relating to a particular issue.

9.3. Observation

Observation is a systematic process of recording behavioral patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they happens. “Seeing” and “listening” are two most important key of observation. The observation may be further participative or non-participative types. Participative observation requires that the observer become a participant in the culture or context being observed. This type of observation is used most commonly for qualitative needs. Whereas in non-participative observation, observer does not try to become a participant in the context, however he does strive to be as unobtrusive as possible so as not to bias the observation.

There are merits and demerits of each method. It is a general opinion that questionnaires and structured interview are the best method for quantifiable data but the standardized from of a questionnaire cannot always reveals a user’s unique experience. Further, the questionnaire leaves no way to determine the respondent’s mood at the time or to clarify ambiguous questions or answers. But the interview can do these things, however it is more expensive and time consuming. But one of the major drawbacks of both questionnaire and interview methods is common – they cannot collect actual data on behaviour, as it happens.

Role of Library in Information Needs

The information needs of the users have to be satisfied by the library and information centres through their services. The information needs relate to:

(i) Which information is needed, i.e., the theme or subject. It presupposes that any and all information about the requested subject will somehow satisfy the information need.

(ii) The other approach is rather different. It might be called a situational approach, where users want information on a certain subject. What can be done to satisfy this need? What does he want to know, at which level of details and abstraction etc. This specifies the intrinsic characteristic of information whatever the subject may be.

Information needs assessment is the first step in any search. This small investment of time at the beginning of a search will save a great deal of time in the long run. Needs assessment is a careful consideration of the questions “What kind of information do I need?” and “Where might I find such information?” Every information need has two types of components (http://www.utoledo.edu/library/mulford/pdf/assess.pdf):

Subject components address the topic of the information need, such as “prevention of knee injuries in high school athletes” or “the role of patient education in preventing complications in high-risk pregnancy”.
Format components relate to the type of information needed, such as review articles, books, items published within the last five years, etc. The format can be determined based on the type of information needed (such as cutting edge information or background knowledge) or by an outside factor (such as a professor requiring research articles).

Questions	Considerations and Suggestions
What information do I need?	Write down your information need in narrative form. Consider the type of information you need: background, current, statistical, etc.
That is the main topic?	Identify the key topic(s) of your search.
Can this main concept be represented by any other terms?	Generate synonyms for your key topic(s).
What are the supporting concepts?	Consider aspects such as therapy, diagnosis, etiology, etc. Consider also population, such as infants, baby boomers, African-Americans, women, etc.
Can the supporting concepts be represented by any other terms? Or by a feature of the system?	Generate synonyms for your supporting concepts. If you already have an idea of which resource you will use, consider features of that system (subheadings, limits).
What format is needed? Can a feature of the system represent this?	Consider internal and external determinants of the format. (See above for more information on format components.)

Once the need has been assessed, then an appropriate information resource must be selected. The table given above provides an overview of the types of resources that can be used to find specific kinds of information. Further, it is also seen that more and more information available in the market due to the explosion of information at global level, therefore management of libraries is necessary to meet information needs of users.

Libraries are the best centres for satisfying the information needs of different classes of users. Therefore, Zhang (1998) rightly stresses over the thorough understanding of user information needs and information seeking behaviour that is fundamental to the provision of successful information services, so that the information needs of different types of the users could be satisfied well.

Summary

Information that arises as a curiosity is considered as a basic need which can be found in primary, secondary and tertiary sources. While information needs are the requirements for the data or knowledge of any kind that is desirable or necessary to conduct the teaching or research.

The paper / chapter may be concluded in the words of Wilson (1981) who mentions that what in fact is meant by information needs is information behaviour. Though both are complimentary of each other but also somewhat differ. Information need arises due to psychological motives, uncleared motives or the social motives but where information needs ends, information seeking behaviour starts to satisfy these needs.

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