7 Coastal Regulation

Ms Manju Menon and Meenakshi Kapoor

1. Introduction

The unit discusses coastal regulation in India. It begins with highlighting the significance and fragile nature of coastal areas, which explains the need for their regulation. It elaborates on various stipulations and provisions of the CRZ Notification, 2011, which is the current legal document that regulates development on the coast. It deals with three important aspects of CRZ notification: CRZ classification & regulations, institutional mechanism and enforcement. It briefly discusses the origin of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification and its journey from 1991 to 2011. It also touches upon key issues concerning the two notifications.

The unit is based on the reading of CRZ Notification, 1991 and 2011; information available on Government websites; articles and papers on CRZ Notification published in various newspapers and journals and media reports and an unpublished report of CPR-Namati Environment Justice Program (CPR-Namati EJP, 2014).

2. Learning Outcomes

After the completion of the module, students will know about the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification that regulates the coastal development. They will be able to define CRZ and divide it further into various sub-zones. Once the students have completed this module, they are expected to broadly speak of the different regulations and prohibitions that determine the development of the coasts. They will be able to explain the role of different institutions in performing the key functions for coastal regulation.

3. An Introduction to coasts

3.1. Ecological fragility of the coasts

Coasts are the interface where land meets the sea. They are mosaics of a wide range of ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes, sand beaches and dunes, estuaries and lagoons (a body of water cut of from a larger body). These ecosystems interact with each other; and the coasts, being the transition areas between two ecosystems, act as ecotones. Due to this continuous interaction, environmental parameters such as temperature, salinity, turbidity, oxygen content and nutrients, etc. are usually in a state of flux on the coast. This state of flux extends to the rich biodiversity of the coast as well and makes it unique (CPR-Namati EJP, 2014)

3.2. Importance of the coast

Besides their ecological significance, coasts gain importance because of their productive ecosystems, ability to support livelihoods, capacity to sustain high human population density and their business potential. Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves are linked with high fish production. Small-scale fisheries in its waters provide livelihoods to many artisanal fishers. Coral reefs are also sites of rich living and non-living resources. They are one of the most productive marine ecosystems, particularly in terms of fish yield. Mangroves and sand dunes together form the first line of defense on the coast providing protection against cyclones and storm surges.

Coasts provide goods that are extremely productive and important for human use such as fish, minerals and salt. Coasts are also being explored for oil extraction. Further, projects such as ports and oil pipelines can be undertaken only at this cusp of land and sea. The sea food industry, export processing zones, shipping, storage godowns for items of import, security infrastructure and manufacturing units that require large amounts of water also prefer coastal locations. With greater emphasis on renewable energy, the sea holds huge potential for tidal energy and ocean thermal energy as well. The beauty of the beaches and the sea has drawn more and more people to these areas for recreation. Even at premium prices, there is great demand for beach facing homes, hotels and tourist resorts. Proximity to the sea makes them ideal for setting up trade centres and cities. Some of the largest cities around the world and in India are located on the coasts (CPR-Namati EJP, 2014).

3.3. India’s Coastline

India has a vast coastline measuring about 7500 km. The eastern coastline, adjoining the Bay of Bengal, starts from West Bengal in the North, passes Odisha and Andhra Pradesh (now including the newly formed state of Telangana) and ends at Tamil Nadu in the South. It has low, wide and flat coastal areas. The western coast begins with Gujarat, and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. It consists of rocky cliffs, all through a narrow strip, adjacent to the Arabian Sea.

Besides, there are certain islands (Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar islands) governed by the administrative setup of Union Territories that form the coastal parts of India. Certain states like Kerala also have islands that fall under their jurisdiction.

These coastal areas are densely populated. Population density in the coasts of India is 500 people per square kilometer of area as against the national average of 324 people per square kilometer of area.

3.4. Coasts are contested spaces: Conflict between development, livelihoods and conservation

The Indian coastline supports the survival of about 10 million fisherfolk. They fish from the waters, dry the fish, mend their nets, park their boats and even live in the adjoining land. They build their houses on the coast – as per the Marine Census Data, there are more than 3200 marine fishing villages in India. Salt production is another livelihood activity being carried out extensively on the Indian coast. As per the Salt Department of India, more than 1 lakh labourers are employed in the salt industry. Majority of the salt pans in the country are located on the coast. Labourers on these salt pans lead a nomadic life spending nine months (September-May) in the coastal region in make-shift houses. Collection of clams and other bivalves is carried out in the estuarine parts of the coast, which has a significant number of people dependent on it. In the recent years the same land is sought for setting up power plants and SEZ (Special Economic Zone) projects besides the usual demand for coastal land for ports, oil pipelines and tourist resorts. The Indian Government has been notifying marine protected areas with the purpose of conservation of coastal biodiversity. So far, the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, Gahirmatha in Odisha and the Rani Jhansi National Park and the Mahatma Gandhi National Park in Andaman & Nicobar have been notified. The Malvan Marine Sanctuary has been proposed in the coastal parts of Maharashtra.

All these uses are competing with each other for a share of the coastal space.

The CRZ Notification is meant to regulate the use of the coastal space among such competing industry, community and public uses while also maintaining the ecological viability of the coastal areas.

Image 1: Fisherfolk use the coast not just for fishing but for net repair, boat parking, fish drying and packaging etc.

4. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification

India’s Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) of 1986 contains a clause, which gives “power to the central government i.e. the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to take all measures that it feels is necessary to protect and improve quality of the environment and to prevent and control environmental pollution”. To meet this objective the Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards” (section 3 (2)(v)).

Using this clause of the EPA, the CRZ Notification, 1991 (CRZ 1991) restricted certain activities and processes in the coastal stretches of India. Due to concerns raised by civil society, fishermen groups and committees appointed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (MoEF) over the years, the notification was replaced by a new notification in 2011, which currently regulates the development on the coast (see section 5 on concerns and issues). This CRZ Notification, 2011 (CRZ 2011) clearly lays its objectives as:

Protection of livelihoods,

Conservation of coastal areas, and Sustainable development of the coast.

Coastal areas upto 500 m from the High Tide Line (HTL)1 of the sea on the landward side along the sea front and 100 m from the HTL along the tidal influenced water bodies2 (bays, estuaries, rivers, backwaters of the sea, etc. that are connected to the sea) and land between

As per CRZ Notification, 1991, HTL means the line on the land upto which the highest water line reaches during the spring tide. The Central Government has authorized agencies for demarcation of HTL/LTL. They are:

1.Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad,

2.Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Thiruvanathapuram,

3.Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IRS), Anna University, Chennai,

4.Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Designs (IWMED), Kolkata,

5.National Hydrographic Office (NHO), Dehradun,

6.National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, and

7.National Institute of Ocean Technology, (NIOT), Goa.

2 As per CRZ 1991, distance upto which CRZ is demarcated in water bodies was kept as the distance upto which tidal effect is observed in the water bodies. As per CRZ 2011, this is the distance upto which salinity concentration in the tidal influenced water body, when measured during the driest period of the year, is 5 parts per million (ppm).

the HTL and the Low Tide Line (LTL) were declared as a Coastal Regulation Zone for the purpose of the notification.

Below are the key provisions and stipulations of the notification:

4.1. Institutions for CRZ Regulation

The CRZ Notification, 2011, in its clause 6 (a), grants powers to the National and State/Union Territory Coastal Zone Management Authorities under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, for the implementation of the notification. Clause 6 (c) of the notification provides for the constitution of the District Level Coastal Committees (DLCC) in all coastal districts. It states that DLCCs would ‘assist’ the State Coastal Zone Management Authorities (SCZMAs).

Hence, there are institutions for coastal regulation at three levels:

Central – National Coastal Zone Management Authority (NCZMA), to be constituted by the MoEF State – State/Union Territory Coastal Zone Management Authority (SCZMA/UTCZMA), to be constituted by the MoEF

District – District Level Coastal Committee (DLCC), to be constituted by the concerned State/Union Territory CZMA.

While the notification does not prescribe anything on the composition of the coastal zone management authority, it mandates that DLCCs should have at least three representatives of traditional coastal communities.

The CRZ Notification, 2011 further stipulates that SCZMAs and UTCZMAs would maintain their websites, where information such as minutes of meetings, decisions taken, coastal zone management plans (see below), etc. would be uploaded.

4.2. Roles of institutions for CRZ regulations

Broadly, institutions created for CRZ regulation perform the below roles:

NCZMA: Coordination and quality check of work of the SCZMAs. Providing a platform for SCZMAs to raise their concerns and MoEF to direct the work of the SCZMAs

SCZMA: Enforcement of the notification and monitoring the compliance of the notification.

DLCC: Assistance to SCZMA

4.3. CRZ Classification

The CRZ Notification, 2011 divides the CRZ into below four zones3:CRZ I: Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) and the geo-morphological features that are crucial for the integrity of the coast4 and the intertidal areas (areas between HTL and LTL).

3 CRZ Notification 2011 retained the zones suggested in CRZ Notification 1991. However, it introduced a new category called ‘Areas requiring special consideration’.

4 Ecologically Sensitive areas include mangroves, corals and coral reefs, sand dunes, mud flats (which are biologically active), protected areas, salt marshes, turtle nesting grounds, horse shoe crab habitats,

CRZ II: Areas that are developed upto or close to the shoreline and falling within municipal limits.

CRZ III: Areas that are relatively undisturbed and do not fall under the above two categories. It also includes those rural or urban areas that are not substantially developed. The first 200 m from the HTL in CRZ III has been made a No Development Zone (NDZ). The areas within the 100 m from the HTL of the tidal influenced waterbodies are also included in the NDZ.

CRZ IV: The CRZ Notification 1991 had included coastal areas of Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep and other small islands as CRZ IV. The CRZ Notification, 2011 included water area from the LTL upto territorial limits (12 Nm), including the water area of tidal influenced water body. A separate notification called Island Protection Zone Notification was drafted for Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.

It also introduced a new category of areas.

Areas requiring special consideration: For the purpose of protecting the critical coastal environment and difficulties faced by local communities, CRZ areas of Greater Mumbai, Kerala and Goa and Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCA) were given special consideration.

Image 2: Areas such as turtle nesting sites are considered ecologically sensitive and therefore qualify as CRZ I areas.

4.4. Coastal Zone Management Plan

The Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) is a document that has all the CRZ zones demarcated in it. SCZMAs use it to arrive at decisions on project clearance, identification of violations and regulation of development activities (see section 4.7 on functions and powers of institutions for CRZ regulation).

The CRZ Notification, 2011 continued with the requirement of preparation of CZMPs and stipulated that states and UTs would prepare CZMPs within the next two years of the notification. It also stated that till the CZMPs are prepared under CRZ 2011, the CZMP approved under CRZ 19915 would be valid.

CRZ 2011 provides a set of guidelines for preparation of CZMPs. These guidelines contain stipulations for HTL/LTL demarcation (in the scale of 1:25,000), local level CZM maps (in the scale of 1:4000), hazard mapping and classification of CRZ areas. These guidelines also direct that any change between the new CZMP and CZMPs as approved under CRZ 1991 needs to be justified. The guidelines also mandate that SCZMAs would conduct public hearings on draft CZMPs and revise them based on the suggestions thus obtained.

4.5. Regulations

The CRZ Notification, 2011 restricts the setting up and expansion of any industry, operation or process and manufacture of handling or storage or disposal of hazardous substances in the coastal regulation zone. There are a number of activities that are prohibited in the CRZ. However, almost all of them are presented with a set of exceptions. The table below lists the prohibited activities and associated exceptions.

Table 2: CRZ Regulations and Exceptions

Besides these generic regulations, the notification also talks about zone specific regulations, which are as below:

CRZ I:

No new construction is permitted, except the ones mentioned in the above table.

Construction of facilities to meet the needs of the traditional inhabitants is permitted in the intertidal areas, which are not ecologically sensitive.

Salt harvesting, desalination plants, storage of non-hazardous cargo and construction of roads, pillars, etc. without affecting the tidal flow are permitted in the intertidal areas, which are not ecologically sensitive.

CRZ II:

Buildings are permissible on the landward side of the existing road, or building or the hazard line. Floor space index and floor area ratio for construction projects should not exceed from their value as on 19 February 1991 (date of issuance of the CRZ Notification 1991). This clause has been relaxed for slum redevelopment projects and reconstruction of dilapidated structures.

Reconstruction of authorized buildings, without any change in floor space index or floor area ratio and present use, is permitted.

Other activities such as desalination plants, storage structures and other exceptions mentioned in the table above are also permissible.

CRZ III:

0-200 m NDZ7: No construction is permitted in the zone except certain activities relating to agriculture, horticulture, forestry, pastures, parks, repair and reconstruction of authorized structures, exceptions listed in the table above and certain public facilities. Dwelling units of coastal communities are permitted in 100-200 m zone.

200-500m: Construction and repair of houses of local communities, tourism projects, public facilities for local inhabitants and the exceptions listed in the table above are permitted in the zone.

CRZ IV:

Traditional fishing and allied activities by the local communities are permitted. However, as mentioned in the table above, no untreated sewage or waste should be dumped in the area.

Areas requiring special consideration:

Development in areas falling within the municipal limits of Greater Mumbai, CRZ of Kerala and CRZ of Goa and critically vulnerable coastal areas (CVCAs) is governed by different sets of regulations.

In Greater Mumbai, roads have been allowed in CRZ I areas. Rehabilitation of existing slums and reconstruction of dilapidated buildings has also been permitted.

50 m from the HTL on islands in the backwaters of Kerala has been demarcated as CRZ area.

All foreshore facilities required for fishing are permitted in the notified fishing villages of Goa. It also allows seasonal temporary customary structures.

CRZ 2011 provides for notification of CVCAs. It has suggested 12 sites8 across the country and entire mangrove area of Sundarbans that should be notified as CVCAs. The notification further states that these areas will be identified, planned, notified and managed based on guidelines issued by the MoEF in this regard. Integrated Management Plans of the areas will consider the conservation aspects of the region and the needs of the local communities. Communities will be involved in the management of these areas.

Regularization

The notification also states that dwelling units of the traditional local communities, which have not obtained formal approval from the CZMAs under CRZ 1991 but are permissible, would be regularized under CRZ 2011. In its meeting in December 2011, the Karnataka SCZMA used this clause to regularize and allow reconstruction of a house for a traditional inhabitant in Udupi district.

Illustration 4: Permitted Activities in CRZ

200-500m: Construction and repair of houses of local communities, tourism projects, public facilities for local inhabitants and the exceptions listed in the table above are permitted in the zone.

CRZ IV:

Traditional fishing and allied activities by the local communities are permitted. However, as mentioned in the table above, no untreated sewage or waste should be dumped in the area.

Areas requiring special consideration:

Development in areas falling within the municipal limits of Greater Mumbai, CRZ of Kerala and CRZ of Goa and critically vulnerable coastal areas (CVCAs) is governed by different sets of regulations.

In Greater Mumbai, roads have been allowed in CRZ I areas. Rehabilitation of existing slums and reconstruction of dilapidated buildings has also been permitted.

50 m from the HTL on islands in the backwaters of Kerala has been demarcated as CRZ area.

All foreshore facilities required for fishing are permitted in the notified fishing villages of Goa. It also allows seasonal temporary customary structures.

Regularization

Illustration 4: Permitted Activities in CRZ

4.6. Project Clearance Procedure

The notification clearly mentions that any activity should be allowed in the CRZ only if it needs waterfront and foreshore facilities. The SCZMA/UTCZMA examines any project that seeks to come up in the CRZ area of its jurisdiction. The SCZMA/UTCZMA, within a period of 60 days, makes recommendations on the project to:

i. Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC), in case the project is listed in Schedule A of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006. If approved by the EAC, the MoEF grants environment clearance to the project.

ii. State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC), in case the project is listed in Schedule B of the EIA Notification 2006. If approved by the SEAC, the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) grants clearance to the project.

iii. SEIAA, in case of construction projects of built up area more than 20,000 sq mts proposed for CRZ II.

iv. State/Union Territory Planning Authorities, in case of projects of built up area less than 20,000 sq mts proposed for CRZ II.

v. MoEF, in case the project is not listed in the EIA Notification 2006 but only in the CRZ Notification.

vi. MoEF, for construction activities related to Departments of Atomic Energy and Defence requirements.

vii. MoEF, for construction, light houses, laying of pipelines, transmission lines, exploration of oil and natural gas, desalination plants, renewable energy projects, mining of rare minerals, foreshore facilities for transfer of raw materials, etc.

MoEF or the concerned State Government decides on the project in the next 60 days. The clearance, once issued is valid for a period of five years.

However, there are examples of cases, which are listed neither in the EIA Notification nor the CRZ Notification, for instance helipads and petrol pumps. In such matters, the SCZMA consults the MoEF.

4.6.1. Requirements for the Project Proponents

The project proponent is required to submit the proposal with the concerned State or Union Territory CZMA with the following documents:

1. Form I (Annexure IV of the Notification)

2. Rapid EIA Report (including marine and terrestrial EIA; comprehensive EIA and cumulative studies as per guidelines issued by the MoEF from time to time)

3. Disaster and Risk Management Report

4. CRZ map (in a scale of 1:4000) with:

HTL/LTL demarcated by the authorized agency

Project layout superimposed on it. It should also indicate a radius of 7 km around the project site.

CRZ I, II, III, IV areas marked on it.

5. No Objection Certificate (NoC) from the concerned Pollution Control Board (PCB)

4.7. Functions and Powers of Institutions for CRZ regulations

The broad roles of NCZMA, SCZMA and DLCC for CRZ regulation have been mentioned above. Authority and responsibility of implementation of key aspects of the notification is distributed amongst these three institutions, the MoEF and the State Government. Below is a table depicting the same.

Table 3: Functions and Powers of Institutions in CRZ regulation

Besides these activities, MoEF keeps issuing directions and guidelines for the SCZMAs regarding their key functions.

5. Concerns and Issues

The CRZ Notification was issued in 1991 with the aim of protection and conservation of the coastal environment. However, over the years, implementation of the notification was faced with a number of concerns raised by civil society organizations, fishermen groups and committees constituted by the MoEF. These include the following:

It was a uniform notification for a coastline of 7500 km spanning over nine states and four Union Territories. It did not take into account the diversity of land use and dependent livelihoods across the coastline. The density of population living along the coast also varied in different states (Ramachandra, 2005).

The demarcation process for tidal lines (HTL and LTL) was confusing for SCZMAs to carry out. CRZ maps were difficult to be used by the local departments and panchayat on the ground (Panigrahy & Pradhan, 2012) .

There was a lack of comprehensive coastal planning. No directions were provided for preparation of CZMPs for the CRZ. CZMPs, though in place by 1996, were not easy to use as critical information was still lacking in most of them.

Lack of definition of terms made the notification ambiguous and difficult to be implemented. Terms such as ‘Foreshore and water front activities’; ‘Traditional rights and customary uses’, ‘Local inhabitants’, ‘Gaothans and fishing villages’; ‘New constructions’; ‘Reconstruction’; ‘Repairs’; ‘Buildings’; ‘Local architectural styles’; ‘Industries’; ‘Projects’; ‘Processes’; ‘Activities’; ‘Temporary structures/sheds’ were not defined.

Lack of consideration of the concerns of coastal communities.

Piecemeal amendments made to the notification over the two decades made it fragmented and nearly impossible to implement. With each amendment, the notification allowed projects that were not permitted in the earlier version (Menon and others, 2007).

In all, eight committees were constituted to give recommendations on and 25 amendments to CRZ notification were made during this time (Equations, 2008).

While some of these concerns were addressed in the new notification in 2011, certain issues still demand attention.

Post- clearance Monitoring

The CRZ Notification, 2011 mandates that project authorities submit half-yearly compliance reports with respect to the terms and conditions based on which the environment clearance has been granted to the project, to the concerned State/ Union Territory CZMA. However, the notification does not have any mechanism for conducting surprise visits and inspections.

Enforcement

The notification does not provide any procedure or timelines for identification of violations. It does not suggest what action could be taken against the violations, once established. The SCZMAs hardly conduct site visits or field inspections of the projects recommended by them. Therefore, there are very few SCZMAs such as Goa, which have been taking suo moto cognizance of violations.

The National Green Tribunal (NGT), while hearing Application No. 49 of 2012, observed that the CRZ Notification 1991 did not provide any procedure for taking action against the violators of restrictions or even the manner in which the CZMA would proceed if it found that any activity was undertaken in violation of the Notification. In its judgment on 11 April 2013, it outlined a procedure for the same for Goa SCZMA to follow in all its cases.

Definition of Terms

Certain terms still require clear meanings and definitions. For example, ‘Dwelling unit of traditional communities’ which are permitted in CRZ has not been defined in the notification.

BOX: Sethusamundram Shipping Canal Project

The Sethusamundram Shipping Canal Project to link Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between Tamil Nadu, India and Sri Lanka is an ambitious project of the Union Government of India. The project was inaugurated in 2005 despite accusations from the State Government that the project has subverted environment clearance and has overlooked the concerns of fishermen. Later on, the Government of Tamil Nadu objected to the project on the ground that it had not obtained the mandatory CRZ clearance. Since part of the project was falling within 12 nautical miles of water area from the LTL, it required to be examined by the Tamil Nadu SCZMA. Hence in April 2013, the state government sought a direction from the Supreme Court to the Centre not to carry out any further work on the project. (Source: PTI , 2013).

6. Summary

India has a vast coastline of 7500 km encompassing nine states and four union territories.

CRZ Notification, 2011 regulates development in the coastal stretches of the nine coastal states and two of the union territories (Daman & Diu and Puducherry).

The objective of the CRZ Notification, 2011 is to conserve the coast, protect traditional livelihoods and ensure sustainable coastal development.

CRZ Notification, 2011 regulates competing uses/demands of the coast, such as fishing, housing for traditional communities, salt production, ports, thermal power plants, tourism activities, protection of coastal areas and real estate.

Under the CRZ 2011, 500 m of land area from the High Tide Line (HTL) has been demarcated as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). In case of water bodies that are under the tidal influence, the CRZ is 100 m from the HTL on both sides of the water body. 12 Nautical miles of water area has also been notified as CRZ under the notification.

CRZ has been divided into four zones: CRZ I (ecologically sensitive, inter-tidal area), CRZ II (built up area), CRZ III (undisturbed/undeveloped area), CRZ IV (water area).

CRZ areas of Greater Mumbai and Goa, CRZ in backwaters of Kerala and its islands, and Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas are given special consideration under CRZ, 2011.

CRZ Notification 2011 governs activities and development in the CRZ by indicating what can be permitted in each of the four zones.

CRZ 2011 makes the SCZMAs responsible for the implementation of the notification. CRZ 2011 stipulates that District Level Coastal Committees (DLCC) should be constituted in all coastal districts to ‘assist’ SCZMAs in the task. It mandates that the DLCC should have at least three members who represent the traditional fishing and other coastal communities of the district. However, the notification does not elaborate on the role of the DLCCs.

CZMAs examine the proposals of projects to be set up in the area on the parameter whether they require waterfront or foreshore facilities or not.

Projects to meet the housing, livelihood and other basic needs of the traditional coastal communities are not prohibited under CRZ 2011.

SCZMAs have also been assigned the task of coordination of preparation of Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMP).

CZMP is a document having all CRZ zones demarcated in it. SCZMAs use it to arrive at decisions on project clearance, identification of violations and regulation of development activities.

CRZ 2011 does not set any procedure for identification and verification of violations to ensure effective implementation of the CRZ regulations.

you can view video on Coastal Regulation

References

1. CPR-Namati Environment Justice Program. Report on Coastal Zone Management Authorities. Draft. 2014 (CPR-Namati EJP).

2. Equations. “Coastal Regulation in India Why do we need a new notification?.” Bangalore: Equations, 2008.

3. Kohli Kanchi, and Manju Menon. “Redefining Coastal Engagement.” Business Line, February 10, 2009.

4. Menon, M., Rodriguez, S. and Sridhar, A. Coastal Zone Management Notification
’07: Better or Bitter Fare. Bangalore: ATREE, 2007.

5. MoEF. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. New Delhi. 1991

6. MoEF. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. New Delhi. 2011

7. Panigrahy J.K and Pradhan, A. “Effectiveness of Indian Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) provision for coastal zone management and its management using SWOT analysis.” Ocean and Coastal Management 65 (2012): 34-50.

8. PTI. “Sethusamundram Project- TN gets 2 weeks’ time to take stand,” The Hindu
Business Line, April 1, 2013.

9. Ramachandran, A. “Coastal Regulation Zone Rules in Coastal Panchayats (Villages) of Kerala, India vis-a`-vis Socio-Economic Impacts from the Recently Introduced

Peoples’ Participatory Program for Local Self-Governance and Sustainable Development.” Ocean & Coastal Management 48 (2005): 632-653.