2 Archaeology and Sciences Part I
Ravi Korisettar
1. Introduction :
Archaeology’s relation with sciences is as old as the birth of archaeology. It is common knowledge that archaeology, particularly pre and protohistoric archaeology cannot be practiced without help from a multitude of sciences. The book entitled Science in Archaeology (edited by Brothwell and Higgs) and Geoarchaeology by Davidson and Shackley and Archaeological Geology (edited by George Rapp. Jr. amd John Gifford) reveal the way a variety of sciences and scientific techniques have been helpful in archaeological investigations and also very aptly summarize archaeology’s dependence on
various natural , biological, physical, chemical and social sciences and scientific techniques. In the context of Indian archaeological research two books entitled Quaternary Environments and Geoarcheology of India edited by S. Wadia, R. Korisettar and V.S. Kale and Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: archaeology and interactive disciplines edited by S. Settar and Ravi Korisettar provide you examples of application of scientific methods and techniques in Indian archaeological research. Application of remote sense techniques in Indian archaeology can be seen in Remote Sensing and Archaeology edited by Alok Tripathi is useful. It is also true that archaeology and other sciences are interdependent. Natural sciences, biological sciences, physical and chemical sciences as well as a host of new scientific disciplines have contributed to the development of archaeological theory, methods and interpretation of the human past.
The archaeological literature of the 21st century presents a plethora of terms indicating the increasing dependence of archaeological investigations not only on sciences but also new techniques to facilitate reconstruction of the human past as completely as possible as well as preserve the vestiges of the past for posterity. Conceptual developments of archaeology have also gradually led to identifying a series of sub-disciplines with their own aim and methods that are mutually complimentary. A series of sub-disciplines either prefixing or suffixing the term archaeology have now becomes specialized areas of archaeological investigations. They are environmental archaeology, geoarchaeology or archaeological geology, bioarchaeology, ethno archaeology, molecular archaeology, anthropological archaeology, settlement archaeology, geospatial archaeology, cognitive archaeology, marine archaeology or nautical archaeology, archaeo-botany or archaeo-ethnobotany,
archaeozoology, archaeochemistry, archaeo-genetics (molecular archaeology), archaeolinguistics, etc. Each of these specialized areas have made it possible to recover the past as completely as possible otherwise thought to be beyond the scope of contemporary archaeological methods. In addition several social sciences humanities and their methods have also been useful in developing archaeological theory and method. Specialist in these disciplines produce data which help reconstruct culture history, culture change and culture change. For examples geographical science has greatly contributed to improving field methods as well as new areas of investigation such as settlement archaeology. Cognitive archaeology deals with the mind of ancient men, for example as applied to the study of prehistoric rock art.
Prehistoric archaeology, protohistoric archaeology and historical archaeology are three broad areas of inquiry into the human past. The application of scientific methods techniques is more common in pre and protohistoric investigations. The face of archaeology began to change rapidly with the emergence of the New Archaeology in the 1960s. The New Archaeology began to explore multiple ways of not only procuring archaeological data but also multiple ways of looking at the archaeological record and developed different approaches. It argued that mere accumulation of systematic data was inadequate and emphasized on the need to go beyond data collection and description. It argued for scientific and anthropological approach and in particular emphasized on ethnoarchaeology. One of the ways in which archaeology was certainly becoming more and more scientific was in its techniques. The post War period had witnessed refurbishment of field methods in archaeology and the benefits of using aerial photographs to identify sites on macro scale. This had also led to an explosion in the number of scientific techniques – the use of computers, dating methods, geomorphology, geophysical techniques, environmental analysis, etc. This development of growth in the use of scientific techniques was a core concern of the New Archaeology and these techniques have provided more and more data of potential use in the study of the past. During the course of these developments archaeology developed its own theory, methodology and aims. While dealing with the recovery of the material remains archaeology has developed a range of methods. It has borrowed and adapted techniques from other disciplines, has made them very much its own. Thus archaeology is different from history in that it requires material remains from archaeological sites and not just written descriptions of these remains.
2. Geology and Archaeology
The role of geological/earth sciences is immense in the archaeological reconstruction of human past. The early discovery of human remains and artefacts associated with bones of extinct animals brought to the fore the importance interdisciplinary nature of the study of human past. It recognized the role of archaeology, geology, palaeontology, in the development of these sciences themselves.
Geologists help is finding ways to resolve practical problems of archaeologists in the initial recovery of data and subsequent analysis as well as establishing the antiquity. Geology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, petrology, palaeogeochronology have greatly contributed to understanding man-land relationships, be it fluvial landforms, coastal landforms, caves and rock shelters. Geological mapping around archaeological sites helps in recognizing a variety of lithic sources as well as ranging habits of ancient men. Principles of geological stratigraphy have been of great help in reconstructing culture-history of archaeological settlements. Geoarchaeological investigations provide a means of for reconstructing prehistoric and ancient landscapes, depositional environments and palaeoclimatic regimes. Collection of information on regional geological environments, local sedimentation and stratigraphy are essential for interpreting ranging behaviours of the ancient settlers. If these features are correctly interpreted the nature of human activity whether ephemeral or long term can be determined.
Documenting sedimentary fabrics, textures and compositions can be useful in activities surrounding the deposition of strata and to gaps in occupation. Simple field description of petrographic features of lithic raw materials either for making tools or building structures will allow location of quarry sites.
3. Geomorphology and Archaeology
Geomorphologists and archaeologists work together in archaeological projects. While geology and archaeology together focus on stratigraphical context of archaeological materials, geomorphology and archaeology focus on relating the archaeological sites to local landform settings. This led to continued collaboration between them to be able to understand the physical setting which in turn help understand environmental change. Specific set of questions to be investigated by collaboration include (1) what is the immediate geologic-geographic setting of the site, (2) what are the relations of such settings to the surfacial deposits of the fluvial context sites, (3) what situations are likely to have been deliberately selected by the settlers or accidentally preserved from natural modification, (4) whether one can predict the occurrence of such sites, (5) what extent the site has suffered damage and (6) what were the contemporary physical conditions at the time occupation at the site.
The application of geomorphological mapping at various scales helps in understanding the resource significance of various geomorphic units to ancient societies, it helps in seeking evidence for climate change, understanding the association of archaeological sites with fluvial, coastal and desert landforms and with caves and rockshelters as well as understand the effects of landform changes on archaeological sites – site formation processes.
During the 1970s and 80 a series of investigations focusing on geomorphology were carried out at a number of Paleolithic and later prehistoric sites in India.
4. Environmental Archaeology
This areas of investigation by archaeologists deals with interaction between people and environment in the past and it is here a variety of natural sciences contribute to a holistic reconstruction of man-land relationships. Palaeoenvironmental analysis is a difficult task and calls for a close collaboration between archaeologist and earth scientists. Here archaeologists focus is on subsistence, settlement and culture change. Subsistence refers to modes of food getting – extraction from wild resources through hunting gathering fishing and fowling, and production – agriculture. These modes of procurement and production are governed by their presence in the environment in wild form. The role of geologist and geomorphologist is important for providing a reconstruction of the geomorphic map and palaeoclimate. Here a detailed and intensive geomorphological, stratigraphic, sedimentological and pedological (soil science) and use of palaeogeographic maps are essential. These provide a basis for determining the biotic zones and productive of resources in these zones. A catchment map will be of great benefit.
5. Palynological Applications
Palynology is broadly defined as the study of pollen and spores from living and fossil plants, including their dispersal and application in palaeoecology. This is useful in both stratigraphic and palaeoecological studies, and is applicable to geology, ecology and botany. Palaeoecological studies based on pollen have been especially important in archaeological studies. Pollen are wind-blown and get deposited in soil, survive in many soil conditions.
The study of pollen and spores preserved in archaeological deposits are of great help in reconstructing contemporary vegetation and climate as well as extracting valuable information on the relationship of prehistoric people and their environments. Identification of cultigens, dietary information, site seasonality and anthropologically related questions can be addressed by the analysis of pollen grains preserved in archaeological sites. Changes in the regional vegetation and climate may be of significance in interpreting the archaeological evidence.
6. Bioarchaeology
Under this broad heading a study of biological remains from archaeological contexts is carried under different specialization including archaeobotany, archaeoethnobotany, archaeoanthropology, archaeozoolgy, etc. These studies have developed distinctive sub-disciplines by adopting aims and methods suitable for reconstructing man-plant, man-animal and human biological development and so on.
6. 1 Archaeobotany
During the early days of the development of this area of study it used to be referred to as palaethnobotany which focused on the study of remains of plants cultivated or utilized by man in prehistoric times, since Neolithic times. Palaeoethnobotany is concerned with te analysis and interpretation of archaeobotanical remains in order to reconstruct the nature of interaction of humans and plants in terms of how plants are used as fields, foods, medicines or in ritual, how seasonality of plant availability affects settlement systems, the extent and nature of man-plant interdependency and the impact of humans on plants. Another term archaeoethnobotany was also used to refer to identification of plant remains retrieved from excavations in connection with cultural associations and radiocarbon dating. Later archaeobotany came to be used, which refers to study of plant remains derived from archaeological contexts. It refers to recovery and identification of plants by specialists from Palaeolithic to the modern times.
During the last seventy years archaeobotanical research in Indian has progressed from strength to strength. A series of regional agricultural traditions have been identified and that the early farming communities adopted various combinations of crops and animals in different parts of subcontinent at different times. Independent centres of agricultural origins have also been identified, these were based on adoption of local millets and pulses prior to the introduction of crops from outside. Village life based on complete package of Southwest Asian, East Asian and indigenous domesticates (both plants and animals) took several thousand years to develop. Several crops have different ecological adaptations and distinct geographical distribution and their introduction into new areas necessitated adaptive measures to ensure productivity.
The archaeobotanical record of the subcontinent presents a complex suite of indigenous and introduced cultivated crops ranging in time from the Neolithic to Early Historic. The African millets and legumes were first introduced to the Harappan Civilization through a maritime contact between Mesopotamia and the Greater Indus valley. The two main millets from Africa, sorghum and pearl millet, were introduced around 2,000 BCE. The African legumes, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and hyacinth bean (Lalab purpureus), were introduced during Late Harappan times (1,800-1,300 BCE). Finger millet is another African crop (Ethiopian origin), known from south Indian Neolithic after 1000 BCE (early Iron Age).
Among the East Asian crops the most important is Asian rice (Oryza sativa),a domesticate from the Yangzi basin of China. Two other millets of external origin found in Protohistoric and later Prehistoric contexts include foxtail millet (Setaria italica) from the Yellow River valley of China and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), a Central Asia domesticate.
Domesticated crops native to the subcontinent were small millets, pulses and legumes. Black gram, greengram (Vigna sp.) and horsegram are known from the Ghats region and the Deccan plateau. Minor millets belonging to Paspalum and Chenopodium genera and Brachiaria ramosaand Setaria verticillata are known to have been locally developed in southern India, during the time period from 3000 and 1000 BC.
The Southwest Asian crops cultivated in India include: wheat (Triticum spp.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L. sensu lato), lentils (Lens culinaries Med.), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), peas (Pisum satium L.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) and linseed/flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). Beginning with the Mehrgarh Neolithic these crops were well established by the time of mid- Holocene Harappan Civilization. Africa provided a variety of millets and legumes with their origin in the different geographical regions of northern, central and Sahara Africa. They include: sorghum or great millet (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench); Ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaetner); Bajra/ pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. syn. P. americanum (L.) Leeke, syn. P. typhoides Rich.); Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.); Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet). Introduced crops from Central Asia/China include: foxtail millet (Setaria italicaL.) Beau); proso millet (Panicum miliacum L.); hemp (Cannasis sativus L.); and rice (Oryza sativa L.).
6.2 Archaeozoolgy
In terms of aims and objectives archaeozoology is similar to archaeobotany. Here the emphasis is man-animal relationship. There are no terminological debates and specialists work on recnstructing man animal interdependence, tracing the origins of animal domestication and the economic importance of domesticated animals. For details I would like to adivse the reader to consult archaeozoology module by P.P. Joglekar in the paper on Pre and Protohistoric cultures of India (human-animal interaction, module 10). Man animal relationship goes back to palaeolithic times, as many wild animals were hunting for subsistence and with the beginning of agricultural way of life select animals were captured and bred for assured subsistence economy
Results of archaeozoological studies can be summarized as follows: Southwest Asia was the region where the archaeological records reveals the earliest evidence for domestication of sheep, goat and cattle, dating back to 11000 BP. Anima remains recovered from a large number of excavated sites in India have been studied in accordance with the methodological developments. The identification of diverse species and ecological conditions have been carried out. Determination of the antiquity of domesticated horse, cattle, and sheep/goat has been a part of this discipline.
6.3 Anthropology:Palaeoanthropology-Archaeoanthroplogy
Anthropology as a systematic study of living human populations is at least five hundred years old and has developed into a comprehensive science of man. Modern anthropology deals with human activities, cultural behaviour, structure of language and communication, physical attributes. Palaeoanthropology is concerned with the study of evolution based on fossil record of human ancestors found in datable geological contexts, while archaeoanthroplogy deals with the application of anthropological methods to human remains from archaeological contexts. A close collaboration between anthropologists and archaeologists facilitates proper understanding of relationship between material culture, subsistence, human biology and environment as well the role of plant and animal domestication in changing thelife-ways of prehistoric communities.
This branch of archaeological science deals with the study of human remains from archaeological contexts to be able to reconstruct biological and cultural aspects of human population in summary it can be stated that : The study of human remains recovered from archaeological sites facilitates the interpretation of lifetime events such as migrations, diet, disease, physiological stress, injury and violent death, physical activity, and the demographic history of once-living populations. But, there is often a lack of good number of skeletal remains to represent a population, and it becomes difficult to generate any kind of information from the available scanty and fragmentary remains. The challenge of reconstructing life of extinct human ancestors from their skeletal remains is the domain of the anthropologists. By applying their knowledge of skeletal biology to palaeodemographic questions they contribute to archaeological investigations of extinct populations and help solve medical-legal problems in forensic investigations as well.
6.4 Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is concerned with the descriptive study of contemporary simple societies (tribal hunter-gatherer societies). Information gathered through ethnoarchaeological research provides a data base of variety of tools and implements produced by these communities that can be the key to understanding prehistoric technology and probable functions. Ethnoarchaeological research also helps in understanding the traditional subsistence and settlement patterns, seasonal mobility and economic resources that can profitably applied to interpreting the prehistoric archaeological record. However caution needs to be excercised while making of the data produced through ethnoarchaeological research. It has been observed the natural world inhabited by the present tribal communities is not the same which was inhabited during prehistoric times and that modern subsistence patterns do not reflect the entire range of ancient parallels even in the same geographical region. Ethnographic analogies have been considered for testing the behavioural models based on material culture studies. It is felt necessary to understand the pattern of prehistoric community life as well as the material culture of surviving primitive societies that bear direct historical link with them Some of the best examples are Ahar, Inamgaon and Harappan sites. A study of the present village of Inamgaon in Maharashtra has made it possible to identify dwellings/houses of various craftsmen such as potters, lapidaries, lime-makers and gold smiths as well as the house of a ruling chief of the community. Similarly a number of house-floor plans revealed through excavation at another Chalcolithic site Walki have been identified as those of a farmstead instead of a regular settlement, as revealed by surviving parallels. The main objective of ethnoarchaeology is to understand the prehistoric settlement organizations both at site specific and general levels.
The present distribution of agro-pastoral communities across the subcontinent have been studied from the perspective of their adaptation to regional ecosystems. They are found in (1) the high altitude regions of the Himalayas (Ladhakh, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh), (2) arid regions of Rajasthan and (3) semi-arid regions of southern India. A study of their life-ways in relation to the environments of their adaptation has led to the observation that these communities live in areas of low agricultural productivity or vast stretches of forest/fallow land. A knowledge of the life-ways of pastoral communities has been put to profitable use for interpreting the prehistoric record of pastoralism from sites ranging from the Mesolithic t Chalcolithic cultures the 2nd millennium BC) in Rajasthan (Bagor and Tilwara), the Ganga Valley (Dam Dama, Mahagara), the Vindhyas (Adamgarh, Kayatha)
Ethnographic research in the Inamgaon region has further helped in understanding the migratory character and overnight transit camping practices among the Dhangars who have adapted themselves to the semi-arid environment of Maharashtra.
Web links
- http://www.archaeology.su.se/english/about-us/events/conferences/xiv-nordictag2014/sessions/history-and-archaeology-a-very-long-engagement-1.154945
- https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-role-does-archeology-play-study-history-451129
- http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-fs13/2013/12/08/why-is-archeology-important/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science
- http://www.saa.org/AbouttheSociety/Publications/ArchaeologyandYou/Chapter2TheScienceofArchaeoo
gy/tabid/1008/Default.aspx