{"id":115,"date":"2019-09-06T05:28:46","date_gmt":"2019-09-06T05:28:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/icp05.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=115"},"modified":"2019-09-06T05:29:54","modified_gmt":"2019-09-06T05:29:54","slug":"na%e1%b9%adyasastra","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/icp05\/chapter\/na%e1%b9%adyasastra\/","title":{"rendered":"N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra"},"content":{"raw":"
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Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

How a society entertains itself is a major part of its culture. Amongst all of ancient Indian literature, N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra is the one text which exclusively deals with this aspect. This text deals with all aspects of Drama, including its origin, design of stage, the psychology of spectators, techniques of acting, story, characters and their types, dance, singing, music, musical instruments and the language to be used by different actors. In each aspect it goes into great depth and treats the topic comprehensively. The depth and comprehensiveness shows that Drama was a very evolved by the time of N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra. In fact there is evidence that within the text that there were earlier authors on the subject1.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

N\u0101\u1e6dya means dance, but N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra is usually translated as \u201cDramaturgy\u201d or a manual of Drama, as the term Drama is more familiar to speakers of English. This book has been composed between 3rd century BC and 1st Century AD according to modern scholars. Traditionally it is believed the Brahma taught this to sage Bharata, who then spread it. The book is mainly in verse, with occasional prose. The length is equal to about 6,000 \u015alokas. It is divided into thirty-six Adhy\u0101yas (Chapters) according to one recension commented upon by the great Kashmiri philosopher Abhinavagupta, whereas another recension has thirty-seven Adhy\u0101yas (the last two being combined as the thirty-sixth in the other recension). The matter<\/p>\r\n \r\n

11P\u0101\u1e47ini refers to two such authors\u015ail\u0101lin (4.3.110) and K\u1e5b\u015b\u0101\u015bva (4.3.111) as having composed Na\u1e6das\u016btras. Amarasi\u1e43ha in his Amarako\u015ba (2.10.12) adds Bharata to the above two as teachers of N\u0101\u1e6dya. Here it may be added that P\u0101\u1e47ini did not set out to list all teachers of N\u0101\u1e6dya; rather he was teaching the usage of specific grammatical affixes (\u1e47ini<\/em> and ini<\/em> respectively).\u00a0is broadly in both recensions is similar, with a few differences in both content and arrangement here and there.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The first five chapters deal with the origin of N\u0101\u1e6dya, description of the Stage, P\u016bj\u0101 to be done to Gods before a performance, details of the first performance and some preliminaries. The sixth and seventh chapters deal with the psychology of spectators and explore what makes for a good performance. In the sixth chapter, the various Rasas are dealt with after the concept of Rasa is introduced. The Rasa School remains the dominant school of aesthetics in all of literature in India even today. The seventh chapter deals with Bhavas which culminate in Rasa. In the later chapters, the various components of acting \u2013 gestures through various limbs, dance movements, usage of the stage, rules of prosody and languages to be used \u2013 are described. This in interrupted by the ancient Indian theory of Drama wherein first ten types of Drama are defined in great detail; then the structure of a play is analysed; and finally the various styles to be adapted are described. Then, the description of the components of Drama is resumed with costumes, moving on to various representations. Near the end of this discussion an important aspect of Dramatic theory called \u201cSiddhi\u201d is presented (a detailed discussion of which is beyond the present scope). Having thus dealt with components of Drama, Music is taken up almost as an independent topic wherein a general theory of music and four kinds of musical instruments are discussed. Then, the various characters are discussed, before closing with the descent of Drama onto Earth in the last chapter<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

In Bharata\u2019s scheme, everything that affects the performance of a Drama is taken up, discussed and analysed before giving recommendations on the appropriateness of different aspects in different situation. However, the number of topics that impact N\u0101\u1e6dya are so numerous that that Bharata himself declares (6.7) that it is not possible to reach of the end of the subject.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

na\u015bakyamasyan\u0101\u1e6dyasyagantumanta\u1e43katha\u00f1cana (6.6 ab)\u00a0<\/span>It is not possible to reach the end of this N\u0101\u1e6dya by whichever means.\u00a0<\/span>Some of these concepts are briefly introduced below.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

2. Rasa Theory<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The Rasa Theory answers the basic question: \u201cHow do spectators derive enjoyment from watching a play?\u201d The answer given by Bharata is \u201cdue to the appreciation of Rasa\u201d. This theory of Rasa, or the Indian Theory of Aesthetics, governs not merely plays, but all literature. Bharata also introduces (in Chapter 18) concepts such as Ala\u1e43k\u0101ras (literary embellishments, i.e. figures of speech such as similes and metaphors), Gu\u1e47as (positive features) and Do\u1e63as of literature, which along with Rasa, form the bedrock of\u00a0<\/span>Ala\u1e43k\u0101ra\u015b\u0101stra, which has seen more than a hundred manuals being written between 7th century AD to 15th century AD. Ancient literature was divided into two: D\u1e5b\u015byak\u0101vya (literature that is \u201cseen\u201d, i.e. Drama) and \u015aravyak\u0101vya (that which is \u201cheard\u201d, i.e. poetry, prose etc.) and the theory of Aesthetics was applicable to both. Modern films are in this scheme D\u1e5b\u015byak\u0101vyas and indeed many ancient poetic conventions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The essence of this theory is presented in a pithy sentence called <\/span>Rasas\u016btra<\/em>: \u201cvibh\u0101v\u0101nubh\u0101vavyabhic\u0101risa\u1e43yog\u0101trasani\u1e63patti\u1e25\u201d \u2013 Rasa is produced due to the combination of Vibh\u0101va, Anubh\u0101va and Vyabhic\u0101ribh\u0101va. Rasa can mean sap or essence or taste. It is used as a technical word in Dramaturgy and Poetics and is best left untranslated. It arises when various \u201cBh\u0101vas\u201d come together. Bh\u0101va is a state of mind and includes dispositions, feelings, emotions etc. Three types of Bh\u0101vas are described by Bharatamuni, namely Vibh\u0101vas, Anubh\u0101vas and Vyabhic\u0101ribh\u0101vas.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Vibh\u0101vas are the determinants; they are the cause. Anubh\u0101va, called a consequent, is what results as a consequence of the Vibh\u0101va. For instance, India wins a match and the spectators are happy. Then, the win is the Vibh\u0101va and joy is the Anubh\u0101va. Then this joy is expressed by certain deliberate actions such as shouting or clapping of hands. These reactions are Vyabhic\u0101ribh\u0101vas (or Sa\u00f1c\u0101ribh\u0101vas), called transients. These three Bh\u0101vas together give rise to a permanent mood or dominant emotion called Sthy\u0101yibh\u0101va. In the present example, the Indian fans have an adrenalin rush and are very energetic (and so they jump, give high-fives etc.), or have the Sthy\u0101yibh\u0101va called \u201cUts\u0101ha\u201d. This \u201cUts\u0101ha\u201d stays for a considerable time after the victory of the team. One is said to relish the Rasa called V\u012brarasa (Heroism) in this state. This very insight is used to depict Bh\u0101vas on stage and take the Spectators to the state of relishing the Rasa.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

There are eight Rasas (or nine Rasas including \u015a\u0101ntarasa, if one follows the text of Abhinavagupta), with there being a Sth\u0101yibh\u0101va corresponding to each Rasa. The various determinants, consequents and transients associated with each are given below:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\"\"\r\n

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The N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra gives many other details pertaining to each Rasa including the Devat\u0101, colour etc. Various commentators have given their own interpretation of how Rasa evolves from the combination of various Bh\u0101vas. Some of these are:<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Sth\u0101yin resides in R\u0101ma etc.; it is seen in the actor on account of his being identified with R\u0101ma, and develops into Rasa.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Rasa resides in the actor; there is a feeling in the spectator that there is no difference between the actor and R\u0101ma.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In a wall painting, the combination of colours on the wall creates an illusion of a horse; similarly, as a result of the power of representation we have an illusion that the\u00a0Sth\u0101yin is in the actor; actually Sth\u0101yin resides in R\u0101ma etc. and in its developed state, it then becomes Rasa.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Every spectator has latent impressions - Sa\u1e43sk\u0101ras; these are brought to the fore by\u00a0<\/span>the determinants, consequents etc. This results in the Sth\u0101yin which develops into Rasa; Rasa resides in the spectator\u00a0<\/span>Abhinavagupta\u2019s theory of Ras\u0101sv\u0101dana, propounded in the 10th century AD, is based on universalization or generalization (S\u0101m\u0101ny\u012bkara\u1e47a) and is the most widely accepted account of how Rasa is relished.We will take an example from Kalidasa\u2019s <\/span>Abhij\u00f1\u0101na\u015b\u0101kuntalam<\/em> to explain this. Du\u1e63yanta, the hero of the play is introduced while pursuing a deer in hunt. There, the poet describes the state of the deer:<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0935\u093e\u092d\u0919\u094d\u0917\u093e\u092d\u092d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0902\u092e\u0941\u0939\u0941\u0930\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0924\u092d\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0928\u0947\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0926\u0943\u092d\u091f\u093f\u0903\u00a0<\/span>\u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0947\u0928\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u0935\u091f\u093f\u0903 \u0936\u0930\u092a\u0924\u0928\u092d\u092f\u093e\u0926\u094d\u092d\u0942\u092f\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0942\u0935\u0935\u0915\u093e\u092f\u092e\u094d\u0964<\/span><\/p>\r\n

\u0926\u092d\u0948\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0935\u0935\u0932\u0940\u0922\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092d\u0935\u0935\u0943\u0924\u092e\u0941\u0916\u092d\u094d\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0936\u092d\u092d\u093f\u0903\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0935\u00a0<\/span>\u092a\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0926\u0917\u094d\u0930\u092a\u094d\u0932\u0941\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093f\u092f\u092d\u0924\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924\u0930\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094b\u0915\u092e\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u093e\u093e\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u092d\u0924\u09651.7\u0965<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Flinging a glance over and anon at the pursuing chariot in a way graceful on account of the bending of his neck, with the major portion of his hinder part having entered the fore part of his body through the fear of the descent of an arrow, and strewing his path with half-chewed <\/span>darbha<\/em>grass dropping from his mouth gaping through exhaustion, behold how he, on account of his lofty leaps, traverses more through the sky, and less on the ground.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

At first the literal sense is understood. In the next stage, once the reader visualises the fear of the deer, the aspect of fear lingers in his mind and slowly the limitations of the particular case, i.e. it is a deer being pursued, that the feeling is that of a deer are removed. In this Stage 2, there is a generalized cognition which is characterized by the absence of temporal and spatial limitations. The fear described becomes an universal fear, not limited to either a particular place, or a particular time. In the final stage the reader or spectator participates in the feeling and every eligible spectator gets the same generalized mental stage of fear. In this way, the Sth\u0101yibh\u0101va <\/span>Bhaya<\/em> obtains and develops into Bhay\u0101nakarasa. Normally nobody wants to be frightened, or be in sorrow, but they still relish Bhay\u0101nakarasaand Karu\u1e47ar\u0101sa because in Ras\u0101sv\u0101dana is a temporary state of universalization and attain that state is the part that is enjoyed, not the feeling of fear or sorrow. In fact later writers compared Ras\u0101sv\u0101dana as comparable to Brahm\u0101nanda, the bliss of knowing Brahman.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

3.Ten Types of Drama and Structure of a Play<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Bharatamuni describes ten types of plays, calling Da\u015bar\u016bpakas, ranging from single-act plays with single characters to elaborate ten-act plays. The salient details are given below:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\"\"\r\n

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Regarding the storyline, N\u0101\u1e6dya\u015b\u0101stra advises that there should be the main story line (\u0100dhik\u0101rika) and an auxiliary one (Pr\u0101sa\u1e45gika or \u0100nu\u1e63a\u1e45gika), which helps the main one; these two are to be interlined. In each of these different stages are described. The hero\u2019s effort to obtain his goal or desired result has five stages, technically called Avasthas<\/em>:<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Pr\u0101rambha or \u0100rambha \u2013 beginning. This refers to exhibition of keenness to obtain the means to the desired end.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Prayatna \u2013 effort. The activity towards obtaining the desired end, but without the result being in sight.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Pr\u0101ptisambhava or Pr\u0101pty\u0101\u015ba \u2013 possibility of success. Arising of hope that the desired end could be obtained if obstacles are removed.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Niyataphalapr\u0101pti or Niyatapr\u0101pti \u2013 Ascertainment of result. The convictions that result would be definitely obtained.\u00a0<\/span>Phalayoga or Phal\u0101gama \u2013 obtaining the result.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Along with the inclination of the hero, the circumstances \u2013 called Arthaprak\u1e5btis \u2013 also matter, which are again divided into five<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

B\u012bja \u2013 seed. A very small aspect planted in the beginning, which would then expand ultimately till the result.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Bindu \u2013 drop. That which sustains the B\u012bja till the end by restoring aspects of the main storyline.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Pat\u0101ka \u2013 secondary plot. This aids the furthering of the main plot, but is complete by itself with its own result.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Prakari \u2013 minor sub-plot. This contributes to the main plot. Ex: In the R\u0101m\u0101ya\u1e47a, the story of R\u0101ma is the main story; that of Sugr\u012bva is the Pat\u0101ka and that of Guha or \u015aabari is the Prakari.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

K\u0101rya \u2013 denouement.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The skilful combination of the five Avasthas with the five Arthaprak\u1e5btis is called Sandhi. Five such Sandhis, corresponding to the combination of each of the stages and circumstances are described: Mukha, Pratimukha, Garbha, S\u0101vamar\u015ba and Nirvaha\u1e47a.T hough Sage Bharata describes the five Sandhis, he makes it clear that not all are mandatory and that the fourth, third and second might be omitted as demanded by the story.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

4. Components of Acting (Abhinaya)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Acting (Abhinaya) is carried out through four means:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n