22 Nāṭyaśāstra

N. Siva Senani

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Introduction

 

How a society entertains itself is a major part of its culture. Amongst all of ancient Indian literature, Nāṭyaśāstra is the one text which exclusively deals with this aspect. This text deals with all aspects of Drama, including its origin, design of stage, the psychology of spectators, techniques of acting, story, characters and their types, dance, singing, music, musical instruments and the language to be used by different actors. In each aspect it goes into great depth and treats the topic comprehensively. The depth and comprehensiveness shows that Drama was a very evolved by the time of Nāṭyaśāstra. In fact there is evidence that within the text that there were earlier authors on the subject1.

 

Nāṭya means dance, but Nāṭyaśāstra is usually translated as “Dramaturgy” or a manual of Drama, as the term Drama is more familiar to speakers of English. This book has been composed between 3rd century BC and 1st Century AD according to modern scholars. Traditionally it is believed the Brahma taught this to sage Bharata, who then spread it. The book is mainly in verse, with occasional prose. The length is equal to about 6,000 Ślokas. It is divided into thirty-six Adhyāyas (Chapters) according to one recension commented upon by the great Kashmiri philosopher Abhinavagupta, whereas another recension has thirty-seven Adhyāyas (the last two being combined as the thirty-sixth in the other recension). The matter

 

11Pāṇini refers to two such authorsŚilālin (4.3.110) and Kṛśāśva (4.3.111) as having composed Naṭasūtras. Amarasiṃha in his Amarakośa (2.10.12) adds Bharata to the above two as teachers of Nāṭya. Here it may be added that Pāṇini did not set out to list all teachers of Nāṭya; rather he was teaching the usage of specific grammatical affixes (ṇini and ini respectively). is broadly in both recensions is similar, with a few differences in both content and arrangement here and there.

 

The first five chapters deal with the origin of Nāṭya, description of the Stage, Pūjā to be done to Gods before a performance, details of the first performance and some preliminaries. The sixth and seventh chapters deal with the psychology of spectators and explore what makes for a good performance. In the sixth chapter, the various Rasas are dealt with after the concept of Rasa is introduced. The Rasa School remains the dominant school of aesthetics in all of literature in India even today. The seventh chapter deals with Bhavas which culminate in Rasa. In the later chapters, the various components of acting – gestures through various limbs, dance movements, usage of the stage, rules of prosody and languages to be used – are described. This in interrupted by the ancient Indian theory of Drama wherein first ten types of Drama are defined in great detail; then the structure of a play is analysed; and finally the various styles to be adapted are described. Then, the description of the components of Drama is resumed with costumes, moving on to various representations. Near the end of this discussion an important aspect of Dramatic theory called “Siddhi” is presented (a detailed discussion of which is beyond the present scope). Having thus dealt with components of Drama, Music is taken up almost as an independent topic wherein a general theory of music and four kinds of musical instruments are discussed. Then, the various characters are discussed, before closing with the descent of Drama onto Earth in the last chapter

 

In Bharata’s scheme, everything that affects the performance of a Drama is taken up, discussed and analysed before giving recommendations on the appropriateness of different aspects in different situation. However, the number of topics that impact Nāṭya are so numerous that that Bharata himself declares (6.7) that it is not possible to reach of the end of the subject.

 

naśakyamasyanāṭyasyagantumantaṃkathañcana (6.6 ab) It is not possible to reach the end of this Nāṭya by whichever means. Some of these concepts are briefly introduced below.

 

2. Rasa Theory

 

The Rasa Theory answers the basic question: “How do spectators derive enjoyment from watching a play?” The answer given by Bharata is “due to the appreciation of Rasa”. This theory of Rasa, or the Indian Theory of Aesthetics, governs not merely plays, but all literature. Bharata also introduces (in Chapter 18) concepts such as Alaṃkāras (literary embellishments, i.e. figures of speech such as similes and metaphors), Guṇas (positive features) and Doṣas of literature, which along with Rasa, form the bedrock of Alaṃkāraśāstra, which has seen more than a hundred manuals being written between 7th century AD to 15th century AD. Ancient literature was divided into two: Dṛśyakāvya (literature that is “seen”, i.e. Drama) and Śravyakāvya (that which is “heard”, i.e. poetry, prose etc.) and the theory of Aesthetics was applicable to both. Modern films are in this scheme Dṛśyakāvyas and indeed many ancient poetic conventions.

 

The essence of this theory is presented in a pithy sentence called Rasasūtra: “vibhāvānubhāvavyabhicārisaṃyogātrasaniṣpattiḥ” – Rasa is produced due to the combination of Vibhāva, Anubhāva and Vyabhicāribhāva. Rasa can mean sap or essence or taste. It is used as a technical word in Dramaturgy and Poetics and is best left untranslated. It arises when various “Bhāvas” come together. Bhāva is a state of mind and includes dispositions, feelings, emotions etc. Three types of Bhāvas are described by Bharatamuni, namely Vibhāvas, Anubhāvas and Vyabhicāribhāvas.

 

Vibhāvas are the determinants; they are the cause. Anubhāva, called a consequent, is what results as a consequence of the Vibhāva. For instance, India wins a match and the spectators are happy. Then, the win is the Vibhāva and joy is the Anubhāva. Then this joy is expressed by certain deliberate actions such as shouting or clapping of hands. These reactions are Vyabhicāribhāvas (or Sañcāribhāvas), called transients. These three Bhāvas together give rise to a permanent mood or dominant emotion called Sthyāyibhāva. In the present example, the Indian fans have an adrenalin rush and are very energetic (and so they jump, give high-fives etc.), or have the Sthyāyibhāva called “Utsāha”. This “Utsāha” stays for a considerable time after the victory of the team. One is said to relish the Rasa called Vīrarasa (Heroism) in this state. This very insight is used to depict Bhāvas on stage and take the Spectators to the state of relishing the Rasa.

 

There are eight Rasas (or nine Rasas including Śāntarasa, if one follows the text of Abhinavagupta), with there being a Sthāyibhāva corresponding to each Rasa. The various determinants, consequents and transients associated with each are given below:

The Nāṭyaśāstra gives many other details pertaining to each Rasa including the Devatā, colour etc. Various commentators have given their own interpretation of how Rasa evolves from the combination of various Bhāvas. Some of these are:

 

Sthāyin resides in Rāma etc.; it is seen in the actor on account of his being identified with Rāma, and develops into Rasa.

 

Rasa resides in the actor; there is a feeling in the spectator that there is no difference between the actor and Rāma.

 

In a wall painting, the combination of colours on the wall creates an illusion of a horse; similarly, as a result of the power of representation we have an illusion that the Sthāyin is in the actor; actually Sthāyin resides in Rāma etc. and in its developed state, it then becomes Rasa.

 

Every spectator has latent impressions – Saṃskāras; these are brought to the fore by the determinants, consequents etc. This results in the Sthāyin which develops into Rasa; Rasa resides in the spectator Abhinavagupta’s theory of Rasāsvādana, propounded in the 10th century AD, is based on universalization or generalization (Sāmānyīkaraṇa) and is the most widely accepted account of how Rasa is relished.We will take an example from Kalidasa’s Abhijñānaśākuntalam to explain this. Duṣyanta, the hero of the play is introduced while pursuing a deer in hunt. There, the poet describes the state of the deer:

 

ग्रीवाभङ्गाभभरामंमुहुरनुपतभतस्यन्दनेबद्धदृभटिः पश्चार्धेनप्रभवटिः शरपतनभयाद्भूयसापूववकायम्।

दभैरर्धाववलीढश्रमभववृतमुखभ्रंभशभभिःकीर्ववर्तमाव पश्योदग्रप्लुतर्तवाभियभतबहुतरंस्तोकमुर्व्ाांप्रयाभत॥1.7॥

 

Flinging a glance over and anon at the pursuing chariot in a way graceful on account of the bending of his neck, with the major portion of his hinder part having entered the fore part of his body through the fear of the descent of an arrow, and strewing his path with half-chewed darbhagrass dropping from his mouth gaping through exhaustion, behold how he, on account of his lofty leaps, traverses more through the sky, and less on the ground.

 

At first the literal sense is understood. In the next stage, once the reader visualises the fear of the deer, the aspect of fear lingers in his mind and slowly the limitations of the particular case, i.e. it is a deer being pursued, that the feeling is that of a deer are removed. In this Stage 2, there is a generalized cognition which is characterized by the absence of temporal and spatial limitations. The fear described becomes an universal fear, not limited to either a particular place, or a particular time. In the final stage the reader or spectator participates in the feeling and every eligible spectator gets the same generalized mental stage of fear. In this way, the Sthāyibhāva Bhaya obtains and develops into Bhayānakarasa. Normally nobody wants to be frightened, or be in sorrow, but they still relish Bhayānakarasaand Karuṇarāsa because in Rasāsvādana is a temporary state of universalization and attain that state is the part that is enjoyed, not the feeling of fear or sorrow. In fact later writers compared Rasāsvādana as comparable to Brahmānanda, the bliss of knowing Brahman.

 

3.Ten Types of Drama and Structure of a Play

 

Bharatamuni describes ten types of plays, calling Daśarūpakas, ranging from single-act plays with single characters to elaborate ten-act plays. The salient details are given below:

Regarding the storyline, Nāṭyaśāstra advises that there should be the main story line (Ādhikārika) and an auxiliary one (Prāsaṅgika or Ānuṣaṅgika), which helps the main one; these two are to be interlined. In each of these different stages are described. The hero’s effort to obtain his goal or desired result has five stages, technically called Avasthas:

 

Prārambha or Ārambha – beginning. This refers to exhibition of keenness to obtain the means to the desired end.

 

Prayatna – effort. The activity towards obtaining the desired end, but without the result being in sight.

 

Prāptisambhava or Prāptyāśa – possibility of success. Arising of hope that the desired end could be obtained if obstacles are removed.

 

Niyataphalaprāpti or Niyataprāpti – Ascertainment of result. The convictions that result would be definitely obtained. Phalayoga or Phalāgama – obtaining the result.

 

Along with the inclination of the hero, the circumstances – called Arthaprakṛtis – also matter, which are again divided into five

 

Bīja – seed. A very small aspect planted in the beginning, which would then expand ultimately till the result.

 

Bindu – drop. That which sustains the Bīja till the end by restoring aspects of the main storyline.

 

Patāka – secondary plot. This aids the furthering of the main plot, but is complete by itself with its own result.

 

Prakari – minor sub-plot. This contributes to the main plot. Ex: In the Rāmāyaṇa, the story of Rāma is the main story; that of Sugrīva is the Patāka and that of Guha or Śabari is the Prakari.

 

Kārya – denouement.

 

The skilful combination of the five Avasthas with the five Arthaprakṛtis is called Sandhi. Five such Sandhis, corresponding to the combination of each of the stages and circumstances are described: Mukha, Pratimukha, Garbha, Sāvamarśa and Nirvahaṇa.T hough Sage Bharata describes the five Sandhis, he makes it clear that not all are mandatory and that the fourth, third and second might be omitted as demanded by the story.

 

4. Components of Acting (Abhinaya)

 

Acting (Abhinaya) is carried out through four means:

  • Āṅgika – acting using limbs
  • Vācika – acting through speech
  • Āhārya – acting through costume, make-up, jewellery etc.
  • Sāttvika – Sattva refers to existence, which would not be visible or perceivable. So it is demonstrated by such things as horripilation and tears.

   The Nāṭyaśāstra describes Āṅgika, that is acting through Aṅgas (limbs) in great detail. It is of three types: bodily action, facial action and action through movement (Ceṣṭa). Bodily action could be through any of the six body parts are listed: head, hands, chest, sides, waist and feet;

 

the six constituent parts of the face are further listed, each of which can be used in acting: eyes, eyebrows, nose, lower lip, cheeks and chin. Then acting based on each of these are described. For instance thirty-six types of glances (acting through eyes) are described along with the Bhāva that is conveyed by each of them. Even while dealing with each in detail, the overall picture is not lost and it is emphasised that facial expressions and bodily action must be in synchrony. Moving on to hands, various “Mudras”, i.e. a particular hand-sign, or the assumption of a particular shape by the fingers are described. For instance “Tripatāka” (shown in the adjacent figure3) is showing one’s palm, fingers pointing upwards, with thumb close to the palm and the ring finger tucked down. Amongst the various “Viniyogas” (usages), one usage is to indicate that the two actors are talking with each other with other characters on the stage not being able to hear them. Twenty-four “Asaṃyutahastamudras”, i.e. Mudras of one hand, and thirteen “Saṃyutahastamudras” (Mudras formed by using two hands, such as the one used when saying “Namaste”, called Añjali) are described. These are very popular in various Indian dance forms presently, including that named after Sage Bharata: Bharatanāṭyam. Similarly various bodily postures called Karaṇas are also described. Thereafter gestures of the feet, calf muscles, thighs and waist – together called Cārī or Cārīvyāyāma are described followed by Maṇḍala which are movements achieved by a combination of number of Cārīs, in other words, dance movements. Thus the chapters on Āṅgikābhinaya cover the various components of dance as well as facial expressions in very minute detail.

 

While Vācikābhinaya should deal with intonation and the use of speech to convey the Bhāvas, as is usual with Nāṭyaśāstra, the coverage is encyclopaedic. Having first divided the languages used as Sanskrit and Prakrit (Prākṛt), the author goes on to cover each in great detail. In the Sanskrit section different types of meters are described, followed by thirty-six Kāvyalakṣaṇas (qualities of a poetical work), four Alaṅkāras (figures of speech), ten Guṇas (qualities), ten Doṣas (defects) and the usage of these. Here it must be remembered that the word “Kāvya” is not necessarily a full length poetical work – any segment which is complete in itself is called a “Kāvya”, whether it be a play, poetry, prose or even a single verse. 3Image taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mudras_(dance)#/media/File:Hasthamudra3.JPG

 

The description of Prakrit is started with a short primer on how Sanskrit words are rendered in Prakrit. Then the language to be resorted by different characters is prescribed. Kings, learned people, important ladies such as the queen and main courtesan are to speak in Sanskrit; all other characters should use Prakrit. Seven types of Prakrit are first listed: Māgadhī, Āvantī, Prācyā, Śaurasenī, Ardhamāgadhī, Bāhlīkā and Dākṣiṇātyā. Amongst these most characters of a high birth should use Śaurasenī. This remains the most used Prakrit in later plays and has developed into present day Hindi. The use of other languages is mixed, with those like Ardhamāgadhī being fairly common (for characters of low birth usually), while Āvantī and Prācyā are not found in extant literature. Bharatamuni, however, is clear that languages which are in vogue in a particular place can be used in Drama and lists Śakārabhāṣā and the languages of Ābhīras, Caṇḍālas, Śabaras, Dramilas, Āndhras and forest tribes as examples of such “low languages”.

 

In the chapter on Abhinaya through Āhārya (costsumes), the different ornaments, clothes, weapons, hair-dos etc. to be worn by different characters are described, as are described the colours of different famous characters. The Sāttvikābhinaya cannot be perceived individually and is always combined with Āṅgika- and Vācika- acting and is hence called Sāmānyābhinaya (common acting).

 

5. Music and Musical Instruments

 

The section on Music is as encyclopaedic as rest of the book and constitutes a treatise on Musicology, with the added description of suitability for different Bhāvas and situations. The seven basic notes of Indian Classical Music are set out: Ṣadja, Ṛṣabha, Gāndhāra, Madhyama, Pañcama, Dhaivata and Niṣāda (sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dhaandnirespectively). Four types of musical instruments (Ātodyam) are decribed:

 

Tatam – that which has strings like Vīṇa etc. Avanaddham – that which is struck, like Mṛdaṅga etc.

 

Ghanam – that which is made of bronze etc., like bell etc. Suṣiram – that which is made of bamboo, like flute etc.

 

An orchestra comprising various instruments is also described. It is emphasised that the three components of song, music and dance must be in complete co-ordination giving the feeling to the spectator that the three constitute one whole. The subject of Gāndharva (music) is said to have three components: Svara, Tāla and Pada. The technical details are much too detailed for the present occasion, but for such an early text, the comprehensiveness is remarkable.

 

Summary

 

From the foregoing, which omitted many matters as it were, it is hoped that the reader gets an idea of the comprehensive treatment of the subject in the text. It is no exaggeration to state that Nāṭyaśāstra remains the most comprehensive text on Dramaturgy. The truly amazing aspect is that this amount of detail obtains from a text which is more than two thousand years old. There is internal evidence and evidence from other texts that other treatises on the subject preceded the present text. Since the book gives a theory of everything connected with Drama, as opposed to a mere description, we must infer that the actual performing arts were known for few centuries and maybe more than a thousand years before the date of the present text. Yet, there seems to be a continuity in the essential aspects to the present day of the arts described therein. Thus, we can infer tha

  • Music, singing, dance and stage craft were highly evolved in India by the Epic period.
  • These continue in their essential form to present day.
  • The Indian Theory of Aesthetics was started during this period and continued to bloom till for another fifteen hundred to two thousand years.
  •  The development of Prakrits, primarily as a corruption of Sanskrit words, but with some local words is seen by the time of Nāṭyaśāstra.
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Bibliography

  • Ghosh, Manmoha. Natyasastra: An English Translation. Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 1956.
  • Kane, Panduranga V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass, 2002
  • MānavalliRāmakṛṣṇakavi. Natyasastra with Abhinavabhāratī. Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1954.
  • Rangacharya, Adya. Nātyaṣ́āstra: (engl. Transl. with Crit. Notes). Bangalore: IBH Prakashana, 1986.
  • Rangacharya, Adya. Introduction to Bharata’s Nātyaṣ́āstra. New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlalPubl, 1998.