3 The vedṅgas and their significance

K Srinivas

1. Introduction

The Vedāṅgas or the auxiliary texts are very important for a proper study and understanding of the Vedas. The Vedic scholars have always taken recourse to six of them in order to bring out the essence of the Vedas. They are: phonetics (śikşā), ceremonial texts (kalpa), prosody (cḥanda), grammar (vyākaraņa), etymology (nirukta), and astronomy and astrology (jyotişa). Apart from this there are also secondary subsidiaries such as epics (purāņas and cosmic histories), logic (nyāya), rules of textual criticism (mīmāmsā), and ethical codes (dharmaśāstras). Curiously enough some of these subsidiaries developed their own philosophies. For instance, grammar and etymology developed their own philosophies. Pāņini and Bhartŗhari contributed a lot for the development of grammar and Yāşka developed the distinctive philosophy of language of etymology. Phonetics and ceremonial texts do not have any philosophy of their own but were absorbed into Mīmāmsā. Likewise, prosody, and astronomy do not have philosophies of their own.

2.  The Vedāṅgas

The above mentioned six subsidiaries come under smŗti for they are only secondary. Just as grammar is the backbone of any natural language so also the Vedāṅgas for the Vedas. Unless one is well-versed in these subsidiaries one cannot really understand the essence of the Vedas. Not only that the recitation of the Vedas needs proper pronunciation for otherwise the wrong pronunciation may lead to absurd interpretation of the Vedas. Since Sāṅskrit language is highly inflectional strict phonetic rules have to be adopted. Let us discuss each of these subsidiaries in detail.

2.1. Śikşa or Phonetic Directory

It is the science of proper pronunciation. This becomes absolutely important when the laws of euphony are taught to the Vedic students. The knowledge of letters, accents, quantity, the right use of the organs of articulation, and phonetics generally is insisted up on. There are recentions of thirty-five and fifty-nine verses respectively attributed to Pāņini concerning the style of phonetics applied to the Vedas. Even in the Taittirīyāraņyaka one finds a hint about the phonetics. In the Vedic Pratişakhyas we find the euphonic combination of letters and their peculiar pronunciation as per the practice of different branches of the Vedas. The pronunciation of words is according to their occurrence in the hymns. Since the Vedas are orally recited proper pronunciation and accentuation of every syllable is needed. Thus these phonetic manuals have great value for those who repeat the Maṅtras every day as part of their religious exercise.

2.2. Kalpa or Ceremonial Directory

Kalpa consists of short aphorisms or rules as a guide for the application of the Maṅtra and the Brāhmaņa portion of the Vedas. It intends to assist the performer of the sacrifice to conduct it as per the manual. There are Śrutasūtras for each of the five Samhitās of the Vedas. The word ‘sūtra’ is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘śiv’ means to sew. In other words, the series of rules or aphorisms have to be properly strung together. According to the Brāhmanicalsūtra the rule or dogma must be expressed as briefly as possible. In these sūtras letters and syllables are used symbolically like algebraic signs. This is for the sake of brevity and convenience. It always advised to use the shortest memorial sentences as an aid to both teacher and pupils. This form of extreme conciseness is not seen in the later sūtras.

The older sūtras have greater curtness, therefore they are in need of commentaries for making their content intelligible. Kalpasūtras appear to be the oldest of all the sūtras. Kātyāyana’s Śrutasūtras come after that. They belong to Satapatha-brāhmaņa of Śukla Yajurveda.

According to some interpretations everyone has right to perform a sacrifice, excepting plants. But other interpretations hold that men alone have right to perform sacrifices for they alone have power of undertaking them as per the dictates of the Veda. Those who are ignorant of the Veda such as crippled, eunuchs, and Sūdras are excepted from performing the Vedic rights. It appears the right belongs to the first three social classes, namely, Brãhmins, Kşatriyas and Vaiśyas. Since no sacrifice is complete without wife, right to perform sacrifices is also accorded to women.

2.3 Chanda or Metre or Prosody

Chandaśāstra is often attributed to Piňgaļa-nāga. Prosody may be as old as 2nd century BC. Like any other field in Sāṅskrit prosody has scope for endless investigation. It is a study in itself. The knowledge of metre of every hymn of the Veda is treated to be essential for proper use and recitation of the Maṅtras. This is the reason why Sāyana in his introduction to the first hymn of the Ṛgveda held that one who does not know the name of the Ṛşi to whom a hymn was revealed, the metre with which it was written, the deity to whom it was addressed, and its right application is the worst of all sinners. Also, it is observed that one who does not follow the metre according to the Brāhmaņas for any hymn is called maṅtra-kanţaka or maṅtra-thorn. In the Puruşasūkta of the Ṛgveda it is mentioned that metres are originated from Puruşa himself. From the universal sacrifice originated the Ṛk, Sāman verses, the metres, and the Yajus.

The Taittirīya-samhitā described the creation of the various metres by Prajāpati. Even Manu insisted that the recitation of any hymn in the Veda must be in accordance with the prescribed metre. Pāņini in his grammar addressed the Veda as Cḥandas. The metrical structure of the hymns was given so much importance for it attaches some mystical efficacy to the hymns. For instance the Gãyatri is held with utmost veneration as a sacred text of the Ṛgveda. It has a special metre. In the Satapatha-Brāhmaņa it is stated that the gods placed Vişņu to the east surrounded him with metres. The south is surrounded with the Gãyatri metre, the west with Triştubh metre, north with Jagati. The post-Vedic metres are many. The most common one found in the epic poetry is called Anuştubh or Śloka. It is short and easy. It consists of four half-lines of eight syllables each or two lines of sixteen syllables each.

2.4. Vyākaraņa or Grammar

The word ‘Vy-a-karaņa’ literally means ‘undoing’. This is first applied to linguistic analysis and then to grammar, especially to Pānini’s grammar. Its opposite word is ’Saṅskaraņa’ means ‘putting together’. The vyākaraņa-sūtras that preceded Pānini’s lost in the antiquity and those sūtras served as the grammatical principles for studying the Vedas. However, it is Pānini’s grammar that is treated as the standard of accurate Sāṅskrit is usually treated as one of the Vedāṅgas. The originality, subtlety and plan of Pāņini’s grammar found no comparison in the later works on grammar. Paņini’s Aşţādhyāyi consist of eight lectures (adhyāyas) and each one of them is sub-divided into four chapters (padas). We find as many as 3996 sūtras or aphorisms in these chapters. The adhyāya explains the technical terms used in the grammar for their interpretation and application. Dhātu or root is an important crude base (prātipadika), but it always appears along with some appendage (anubandha). Similarly, there are discussions about active voice (parasmaipada), and middle or reflexive voice (ātmanepada).

The sūtras of Pānini are perfect examples for memory for the teachers. Abridgement of the sūtras appeared to be of paramount importance to grammatical algebra of Pāņini. When there is a need to save a single letter all other considerations are sacrificed. Grammar being the backbone of any natural language it has to be pursued for its own sake. For Indian grammarians grammar is like any other natural science. In fact, Pānini’s grammar provides with a kind of natural history of Sāṅskrit language. It provides with an account of linguistic facts and phenomena without using any scientific tool. Of course, Katyãyana, who is also popularly known as Vãrtika-kãra, pointed out certain lacunae in Pānini’s grammar. However, the supposed shortcomings of Pānini’s grammar only helped later grammarians to add up certain supplementary rules.

2.5. Nirukta or Etymology

This is another important subsidiary which intends to explain the root meaning of any difficult Vedic expression. Nirukta is a kind of compilation of words with an exposition. It was attempted first by Yāşka, who appeared to have lived prior to Pānini. His work barely consists of certain lists and catalogues of words in five chapters. Naighanţuka consists of words which are treated as synonyms or having similar meanings. The synonyms in each collection vary from two to one hundred and twenty-two. One cannot strictly call them synonyms. Or one can say that how a single word assumes different meanings in different contexts. For example, the word ‘gamati’ can mean he turns (vartate), he rolls (lotate), he creeps (sarpati), he flows (sravati), he drops (sransate), and so on. In other words, all forms of motion are included in these meanings. Naigama is the collection of two hundred seventy eight separate words (padāni) that occur in the Veda. Daivata consists of one hundred and fifty one words concerning deities and religious or sacrificial acts.

Nirukta is the technique used by Yāşka to explain the meaning of the words. Nirukta helped a great deal in understanding the essence of the Veda. Vedic passages are etymologically investigated in order to provide intelligibility to the Vedic texts. Nirukta makes frequent references to Brāhmaņas and allusions are made to the various Vedic interpretations. Yāşka’s nirukta provides with suitable specimen to explain the Vedic hymns. He reiterated that the traditional use of words needs to be explained. The grammar of science that involves the subject of derivation is highlighted by Yāşka. Four kinds of words are enumerated. They are: nouns (nāman), verbs (akhyāta), prepositions (upasarga), and particles (nipaţa). The ancient grammarian Şakatāyana held that nouns are derived from verbs and etymologists accepted such a theory. But some grammarians like Gārgya argued that all nouns are not derived from verbs. If it were so whatever performs the same action must have same name. For instance, the word aśva, a horse, is derived from the root ‘aş’ which means ‘passes through’ then everyone who passes through a way must be called aśva. Similarly, if triņa a blade of grass, is derived from the root ‘trid’ means piercing then everything that pierces through can be called triņa. These unending debates are prevalent in Sanskrit grammar and etymology. Several theories are advanced to support one or the other view. Later lexicographers developed many glossaries.

2.6. Jyotişa or Astronomy

This Vedāṅga is called astronomical or astrological calendar. The entire calendar consists of thirty-six verses written almost in modern style. Majority of the scholars cannot assign the date for it beyond 300 B.C. Some even hold that there is no authoritative or genuine sūtra found even today. The most important function of Jyotişa Vedāṅga is to find an appropriate auspicious occasion (day or season) to perform sacrifices. However brief is this treatise it deserved lot of attention for it contains most ancient astronomical ideas. For instance, the measure of the day by Muhuryas or hours of forty-eight minutes, the division of Zodiac into twenty-seven parts or lunar asterisms (the first of which is called kŗtika), and the traditional place for solstitial points are all found in this treatise. Based on this the scholars attempted to fix the date of the treatise and the entire Vedic literature. The entire Hindu auspicious calendar is derived from this treatise for the performance of rites and ceremonies of domestic and public importance. The entire astronomical and astrological science got slowly got strengthened due to the Hindu priesthood which used this almanac as an important guide for conducting rituals and ceremonies in India. The influence of sun on atmosphere and soil is so conspicuous that it made natural to believe in similar influences of other planets, moon, and stars.

People started believing in the power of these and deified them for favours in their personal life. Similarly the Hindu mind did not leave them merely at the level of superstition but started investigating into the movements of heavenly bodies through arithmetical and mathematical calculations. These calculations were given notable credence when there were no mechanical and optical appliances. There were references to some sort of scientific evidence in Aitareya-brāhmaņa. Also in the earliest hymns of the Veda there are reference to stars and their connection with the moon. The phases of moon in the zodiac are also considered to be very significant for time-measurement, and month-making. Perhaps this was done as early as 1400 BC. Interestingly the twenty-seven lunar mansions implied a lunar division of zodiac into twenty-seven equal parts of ‘130 20’ to each part is also shared by Arabs and Chinese. The names of Indian months are taken from the asterisms in which the moon was supposed to be full at different times of the year. Some of the names are also derived from the ancient Vedic deities such as Aśvins.

Whatever may be the conclusion one cannot fail to acknowledge the contribution of Hindus to astronomy and astrology for they applied algebra to both these sciences. Then Arabs inherited it and passed it on to the Europe. The earliest Hindu astronomer who is well-known for his contribution to this field is Āryabhata. His three important works Āryabhātia, Daśagītika, and Āryaşta-şata inspired astronomical research in the Indian-subcontinent. He wrote about diurnal revolution of earth on its axis and causes for the true theory of lunar and solar eclipses. Then another important Hindu astronomer who is well-known for his work Paňca-śiddhāntika is Varāhamihira. This work contains chapters on arithmetic and algebra. Followed by his is another prominent Hindu astronomer Bhāsakara the author of Siddānta-śiromaņi. These are some of the notable contributions of the ancient Indian philosophers to jyotişa.

3.Summary

To conclude, the Vedāṅgas as important subsidiaries are used as aids to interpret and understand the quintessence of the Vedas. Each one of them has its relevance when the Vedas are taken up for highlighting their contents. As stated earlier, without these aids the contents of the Vedas would be unintelligible for the posterity. Thus the ancient Indian philosophers have accorded due importance to the Vedāṅgas. Some of them such as etymology, grammar, and astronomy have developed their own philosophies.

Web links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanga
• http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/vedangas.asp
• http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_heritage_Vedangas.htm
• http://www.indicstudies.us/Hinduism/Vedangas.htm

Bibliography

• Saravati, Jayentira. The Vedas and Vedangas. Virginia: Virginia University, 2008.
• Williams, Monier. Indian Wisdom. New Delhi: Rupa & Co., 2003.