25 Islam

S. Abdul Sattar

 Brief picture of pre-Islamic Arabia:

Demoralized state is perhaps the most comprehensive phrase through which the pre-Islamic world can be concisely picturised. The whole world lay in the fast grip of paganism, savagery, debauchery, anarchy and other vices. Autocracy and despotism prevailed at an extreme in every religion. The poor were trampled down and persecuted by the rich and humanity groaned under the curse of inhumanity. Under this heavy incubus of religious was Arabia groaning when Islam suddenly and unexpectedly appeared.

The period preceding the advent of Muhammadr has been designated the Dark Age by the Quran which epitomizes in two words. Virtually, the whole Arabia was enjoying complete independence, and the neighbouring empires of Byzantine and Iran paid no attention to Arabs who were thought to be barbaric, poor and hungry. There was no central government to enforce law and order in the peninsula. The whole Arabia was rent into innumerable petty states, each clan forming a separate and independent political unit. Each tribe had a chief of its own who would lead it in battle against a hostile tribe to vindicate its rights. Tribal prejudice was common and small incidents would lead to bitter feuds which continued for generations. But there was no law whatsoever, binding the tribe to the nation. The whole peninsula was thus like a hornet’s nest.

The social condition of Arabs was deplorable as it was steeped in immorality. Human sacrifice was commonly practised. Ancient Arabs literature is stunk with wine and other strong liquors, containing a treasure of its expressions. During a state of drunkenness, acts of the most shameless vice and profligacy were indulged in by the whole assembly. Rum-shops were well decorated. Gambling was the next favourite pastime for them. Adultery was another vice to which the whole of Arabia was hopelessly wedded. The enemies were burnt alive, pregnant women had their bellies slashed, innocent babies and children were massacred. Usury was in vogue. The women, having no right and no social respect, were the worst sufferer in the society. They were regarded as chattels and were looked with bitter contempt. A man was free to marry any number of women and could divorce as he wished. Women were deprived of the right of inheritance. The Arabs were embarrassed at the birth of daughters and sometimes, the fathers buried them alive in spite of soul-harrowing cries. It was a custom for the eldest son to take as wives his father’s widows, inherited as a property with the rest of the estate. Slavery was another curse having a firm hold on the Arab society. The masters possessed the authority of life and death over them. The worst type of obscene language was used in expressing sex-relations. Stories of love and illicit relationships were narrated proudly and with utter want of shame in verses of the most indecent kind. In sum, women were accorded no better treatment than lower animals. Robbery, pillage and murder were also of common occurrence; human blood being almost daily shed without remorse or horror. On the death of any person, the custom was to tie his camel to his tomb and suffer it to be starved to death, and this camel they called Baliyah. Nevertheless, the Arabs possessed certain natural virtues that marked them out in the post-Islamic age. They were the most eloquence nation, plain of speech, strong of memory, firm of determination, superb horsemen, loyal and trustworthy.

2. The advent of Muhammadr:

Muhammadr was born in Makkah in the year 570 CE, at a time when Christianity was not yet fully established in Europe. Since his father died before his birth, and his mother shortly afterwards, he was raised by his uncle from the respected tribe of Quraysh. As he grew up, he became known for his truthfulness, generosity and sincerity, so that he was sought after for his ability to arbitrate in disputes. The historians describe him as calm and meditative.

Muhammadr was of a deeply religious nature, and had long detested the decadence of his society. It became his habit to meditate from time to time in the Cave of Hira near the summit of Jabal al-Nur, the ‘Mountain of Light’ near Makkah.

At the age of 40, while engaged in a meditative retreat, Muhammadr received his first revelation from God through the Angel Gabriel. This revelation, which continued for twenty-three years, is known as the Quran.

As soon as he began to recite the words he heard from Gabriel, and to preach the truth which God had revealed to him, he and his small group of followers suffered bitter persecution, which grew so fierce that in the year 622 CE, God gave them the command to emigrate. This event, the Hijrah, ‘migration’, in which they left Makkah for the city of Madinah some 260 miles to the north, marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

After several years, Muhammadr and his followers were able to return to Makkah, where they forgave their enemies and established Islam definitively. Before he died at the age of 63, the greater part of Arabia was Muslim, and within a century of his death Islam had spread to Spain in the West and as far East as China.

3. What the meaning of religion is – in general:

A religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and world views that relate humanity to an order of existence. Many religions have narratives, symbols, and sacred histories that aim to explain the meaning of life and/or to explain the origin of life or the Universe. From their beliefs about the cosmos and human nature, people may derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle.

4. What Islam is:

Islam is a religion based upon the surrender to God who is One. ‘Islam’ is a verbal noun originating from the tri-literal root ‘sa-la-ma’ which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, safeness and peace. The very name of the religion, Al-Islam in Arabic, means at once submission and peace, for it is in submitting to God’s Will that human beings gain peace in their lives in this world and in the hereafter. In a religious context it means “voluntary submission to God”. ‘Mohammedanism’ is thus a misnomer because it suggests that Muslims worship Muhammadr rather than God.

The message of Islam concerns God, Who in Arabic is called Allāh, and it addresses itself to humanity’s most profound nature. It concerns men and women as they were created by God–not as fallen beings. Islam therefore considers itself to be not an innovation but a reassertion of the universal truth of all revelation which is God’s Oneness.

5. Articles of Faith:

There are certain tenets one must believe without any doubt in order to be considered a Muslim. These articles of faith are as follows:

5.1. Allāh, the One and Only God

Muslims believe in One God, Supreme and Eternal, Infinite and Mighty, Merciful and Compassionate, Creator and Provider. God neither has father, mother, sons nor was He fathered. None equal to Him. God is described in Chapter 112 of the Qur’an as: “Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; and there is none like unto Him.” He is God of all mankind, not of a special tribe or race. Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ʾilāh (Arabic: هلإ)‎ is the term used for a deity or a god in general. Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allāh, for instance “Tanrı” in Turkish, “Khodā” in Persian or “Ḵẖudā” in Urdu.

5.2. The Angels

There are purely spiritual and splendid beings created by Allāh. They require no food or drink or sleep. They have neither physical desires nor material needs. Angels spend their time in the service of Allāh. According to the Qur’an, angels do not possess free will, and therefore worship and obey God in total obedience. Each is charged with a certain duty. Angels cannot be seen by the naked eyes. Knowledge and the truth are not entirely confined to sensory knowledge or sensory perception alone.

5.3. Revelations and the Quran

Muslims believe in all scriptures and revelations of God, as they were complete and in their original versions. Allāh, the Creator, has not left man without guidance for the conduct of his life. Revelations were given to guide the people to the right path of Allāh and sent down to selected people, the prophets and messengers, to convey it to their fellow men.

The message of all the prophet and messengers is the same. They all asked the people of their time to obey and worship Allāh and none other. Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad, peace be upon them, who were revealed their own book of Allāh, were sent at different times to bring back straying human beings from deviation to the right course.

The Quran is the last book of guidance from Allāh, sent down to Muhammadr, through the angel Jibraeel (Gabriel). Every word of it is the word of Allāh. It was revealed over a period of 23 years in the Arabic language. It contains 114 Surahs (chapters) and over 6000 verses.

5.4. Messengers and Prophets of God

Muslims believe in all the Messengers and Prophets of God without any discrimination. All messengers were mortals, human beings, endowed with divine revelations and appointed by God to teach mankind. The Holy Quran mentions the names of 25 messengers and prophets and states that there are others. These include Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Moses, Jesus and Muhammadr, peace be upon them. Their message is the same and it is Islam and it came from One and the Same Source; God, and it is to submit to His will and to obey His law; i.e., to become a Muslim. Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammadr as the last prophet (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God).

5.5. The Day of Judgment

Muslims believe in the Day of the Judgment. This world or universe as people know it will come to an end, and the dead will rise to stand for their final and fair trial. On that day, all men and women from Adam to the last person will be resurrected from the state of death for judgment. Everything we do, say, make, intend and think are accounted for and kept in accurate records. They are brought up on the Day of Judgment.

One who believes in life after death is not expected to behave against the Will of Allāh. He will always bear in mind that Allāh is watching all his actions and the angels are recording them.

People with good records will be generously rewarded and warmly welcomed to Allāh’s Heaven. People with bad records will be fairly punished and cast into Hell. The real nature of Heaven and Hell are known to Allāh only, but they are described by Allāh in man’s familiar terms in the Quran.

5.6. Qadaa and Qadar

Muslims believe in Qadaa and Qadar which relate to the ultimate power of Allāh. Qadaa and Qadar mean the Timeless Knowledge of Allāh and His power to plan and execute His plans. Allāh is not indifferent to this world nor is He neutral to it. It implies that everything on this earth originates from the one and only Creator who is also the Sustainer and the Sole Source of guidance.

Allāh is Wise, Just, and Loving, and whatever He does must have a good motive, although we may fail sometimes to understand it fully. Muslims have faith in Allāh and accept whatever He does because our knowledge is limited and our thinking is based on individual consideration, whereas His knowledge is limitless and He plans on a universal basis. Man should think, plan and make sound choices, but if things do not happen the way he wants, he should not lose faith and surrender himself to mental strains or shattering worries.

6. Pillars of Islam:

The most important Muslim practices are the five pillars of Islam. The Five Pillars of Islam are the five obligations that every Muslim must satisfy in order to live a good and responsible life according to Islam. The Five Pillars of Islam are the framework of the Muslim life. They are the testimony of faith, prayer, giving Zakat (support of the needy), fasting during the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime for those who are able.

6.1. First Pillar: Sahadah (Testimony of Faith)

There is no god worthy of worship except God and Muhammadr is His messenger. This declaration of faith is called the Shahada, a simple formula which all the faithful pronounce. In Arabic, the first part is ‘lā ilaha illa’Llah’ – ‘there is no god except God’; ‘ilaha’ (god) can refer to anything which people may be tempted to put in place of God — wealth, power, and the like. Then comes ‘illa’Llah’: ‘except God’, the source of all Creation. The second part of the Shahadah is ‘Muhammadun rasulu’Llah’: ‘Muhammadr is the messenger of God.’ A message of guidance has come through a man like us.

6.2. Second Pillar: Salat (Prayer)

Salāt is the name for the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, and are a direct link between the worshipper and God. There is no hierarchical authority in Islam, and no priests, so the prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Quran, chosen by the congregation. These five prayers contain verses from the Quran, and are said in Arabic, the language of the Revelation, but personal supplication can be offered in one’s own language.

Prayers are said at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and nightfall, and thus determine the rhythm of the entire day. Although it is preferable to worship together in a mosque, a Muslim may pray almost anywhere, such as in fields, offices, factories and universities.

At the time of Salāt, there will be a Call to Prayer called Adān before the actual prayer. A translation of the Call to Prayer is: ‘God is most great. God is most great. God is most great. God is most great. I testify that there is no god except God. I testify that there is no god except God. I testify that Muhammadr is the messenger of God. I testify that Muhammadr is the messenger of God. Come to prayer! Come to prayer! Come to success (in this life and the Hereafter)! Come to success! God is most great. God is most great. There is no god except God.’

Once Muslims prayed towards Jerusalem, but during the Prophet’s lifetime it was changed to Makkah. From the Mimbar, the pulpit, the Imam who leads the prayer gives the sermon at the Friday noon community prayers.

6.3. Third Pillar: Zakāt (Compulsory Charity)

One of the most important principles of Islam is that all things belong to God, and that wealth is therefore held by human beings in trust. The word Zakāt means both ‘purification’ and ‘growth’. Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need, and, like the pruning of plants, this cutting back balances and encourages new growth.

Each Muslim calculates his or her own Zakāt individually. For most purposes this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one’s capital.

A pious person may also give as much as he or she pleases as Sadaqah (voluntary charity), and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as ‘voluntary charity’ it has a wider meaning. Muhammadr said: ‘Even meeting your brother with a cheerful face is charity.’

Muhammadr said: ‘Charity is a necessity for every Muslim.’ He was asked: ‘What if a person has nothing?’ Muhammadr replied: ‘He should work with his own hands for his benefit and then give something out of such earnings in charity.’ The Companions asked: ‘What if he is not able to work?’ Muhammadr said: ‘He should help poor and needy persons.’ The Companions further asked ‘What if he cannot do even that?’ Muhammadr said ‘He should urge others to do good.’ The Companions said ‘What if he lacks that also?’ Muhammadr said ‘He should check himself from doing evil. That is also charity.’

6.4. Fourth Pillar: Sawm (Fasting)

Every year in the month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. Those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey, and women who are pregnant or nursing are permitted to break the fast and make up an equal number of days later in the year. If they are physically unable to do this, they must feed a needy person for every day missed. Children begin to fast (and to observe the prayer) from puberty, although many start earlier.

Although the fast is most beneficial to the health, it is regarded principally as a method of self-purification. By cutting oneself off from worldly comforts, even for a short time, a fasting person gains true sympathy with those who go hungry as well as growth in one’s spiritual life.

6.5. Fifth Pillar: Hajj (The Pilgrimage)

The annual pilgrimage to Makkah, the Hajj, is an obligation only for those who are physically and financially able to perform it. Nevertheless, about two million people go to Makkah each year from every comer of the globe providing a unique opportunity for those of different nations to meet one another. Although Makkah is always filled with visitors, the annual Hajj begins in the twelfth month of the Islamic year (which is lunar, not solar, so that Hajj and Ramadan fall sometimes in summer, sometimes in winter). Pilgrims wear special clothes: simple garments which strip away distinctions of class and culture, so that all stand equal before God.

7. Primary Sources of Islam and Islamic Law (al-Shari’ah):

Islam possesses a religious law called al-Shari’ah in Arabic which governs the life of Muslims and which Muslims consider to be the embodiment of the Will of God. The Shari’ah is contained in principle in the Quran as elaborated and complemented by the Sunnah. On the basis of these principles the schools of law which are followed by all Muslims to this day were developed early in Islamic history. This Law, while being rooted in the sources of the Islamic revelation, is a living body of law which caters to the needs of Islamic society.

Islamic laws are essentially preventative and are not based on harsh punishment except as a last measure. The faith of the Muslim causes him to have respect for the rights of others and Islamic Law is such that it prevents transgression from taking place in most instances. That is why what people consider to be harsh punishments are so rarely in need of being applied.

7.1. The Quran:

For Muslims, or followers of Islam, the Quran is the actual Word of God revealed through the archangel Gabriel to the Prophet of Islam during the twenty-three-year period of his prophetic mission. It was revealed in the Arabic language which Muhammadr repeated to his companions. Under the direction of him, the verses and chapters were organized in the order known to Muslims to this day. There is only one text of the Quran accepted by all schools of Islamic thought and there are no variants.

The Quran is the central sacred reality of Islam. The sound of the Quran is the first and last sound that a Muslim hears in this life. As the direct Word of God and the embodiment of God’s Will, the Quran is considered as the guide par excellence for the life of Muslims. It is the source of all Islamic doctrines and ethics. Both the intellectual aspects of Islam and Islamic Law have their source in the Quran. Perhaps there is no book revered by any human collectivity as much as the Quran is revered by Muslims. Essentially a religion of the book, Islam sees all authentic religions as being associated with a scripture. That is why Muslims call Christians and Jews the “people of the book”.

Throughout all its chapters and verses, the Quran emphasizes the significance of knowledge and encourages Muslims to learn and to acquire knowledge not only of God’s laws and religious injunctions, but also of the world of nature. The Quran refers, in a language rich in its varied terminology, to the importance of seeing, contemplating, and reasoning about the world of creation and its diverse phenomena. It places the gaining of knowledge as the highest religious activity, one that is most pleasing in God’s eyes. That is why wherever the message of the Quran was accepted and understood, the quest for knowledge flourished.

7.2. Sunnah/Hadith:

The practices and traditions (Sunnah) of Muhammadr which includes his sayings (Hadith) became the guide for Muslims in the understanding of the Quran and the practice of their religion. The Quran itself asserts that God has chosen in Muhammadr an example for Muslims to follow. Besides this emulation of Muhammadr in all aspects of life and thought, his sayings were assembled by various scholars. Finally they were codified in books of Hadith where the authentic were separated from the spurious. The Sunnah has always remained, after the Quran, the second source of Islamic sciences. In brief Sunnah are the examples of the Muhammadr ‘s life what he said, did, implemented, how he implemented, almost the same as the hadith.

Some sayings of Muhammadr:

• ‘God has no mercy on one who has no mercy for others.’
• ‘None of you truly believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself.’
• ‘He who eats his fill while his neighbor goes without food is not a believer.’
• ‘The truthful and trusty businessman is associated with the prophets the saints, and the martyrs.’
• ‘Powerful is not he who knocks the other down, indeed powerful is he who controls himself in a fit of anger.’
• ‘God does not judge according to your bodies and appearances but He scans your hearts and looks into your deeds.’ 
• ‘A man walking along a path felt very thirsty. Reaching a well he descended into it, drank his fill and came up.
• Then he saw a dog with its tongue hanging out, trying to lick up mud to quench its thirst.
• The man saw that the dog was feeling the same thirst as he had felt so he went down into the well again and filled his shoe with water and gave the dog adrink.
• God forgave his sins for this action.’ The Prophetr was asked: ‘Messenger of God, are we rewarded for kindness towards animals?’ He said, ‘There is a reward for kindness to every living thing.’

8. Human Rights and Justice:

Islam provides many human rights for the individual. The following are some of these human rights that Islam protects.

The life and property of all citizens are considered sacred, whether a person is Muslim or not. Islam also protects honor. So, in Islam, insulting others or making fun of them is not allowed. The Prophet Muhammadr said: “Truly your blood, your property, and your honor are inviolable.”1

Racism is not allowed in Islam, for the Quran speaks of human equality in the following terms: “O mankind, We have created you from a male and a female and have made you into nations and tribes for you to know one another. Truly, the noblest of you with God is the most pious. Truly, God is All-Knowing, All-Aware.” (Quran, 49:13)

Islam rejects certain individuals or nations being favored because of their wealth, power, or race. God created human beings as equals who are to be distinguished from each other only on the basis of their faith and piety. The Prophet Muhammadr said: “O people! Your God is one and your forefather (Adam) is one. An Arab is not better than a non-Arab and a non-Arab is not better than an Arab, and a red (i.e. white tinged with red) person is not better than a black person and a black person is not better than a red person, except in piety.”2

One of the major problems facing mankind today is racism. The developed world can send a man to the moon but cannot stop man from hating and fighting his fellow man. Ever since the days of the Prophet Muhammadr, Islam has provided a vivid example of how racism can be ended. The annual pilgrimage (Hajj) to Makkah shows the real Islamic brotherhood of all races and nations, when about two million Muslims from all over the world come to Makkah to perform the pilgrimage.

The Prophet Muhammadr said: “People, beware of injustice, for injustice shall be darkness on the Day of Judgment.”3 And those who have not gotten their rights (i.e. what they have a just claim to) in this life will receive them on the Day of Judgment, as the Prophetr said: “On the Day of Judgment, rights will be given to those to whom they are due (and wrongs will be redressed)…”4

• Narrated in Saheeh Al-Bukhari, #1739, and Mosnad Ahmad, #2037.
• Narrated in Mosnad Ahmad, #22978.
• Narrated in Mosnad Ahmad, #5798, and Saheeh Al-Bukhari, #2447.
• Narrated in Saheeh Muslim, #2582, and Mosnad Ahmad, #7163.

9. Family system:

The family, which is the basic unit of civilization, is now disintegrating. Islam’s family system brings the rights of the husband, wife, children, and relatives into a fine equilibrium. It nourishes unselfish behavior, generosity, and love in the framework of a well-organized family system. The peace and security offered by a stable family unit is greatly valued, and it is seen as essential for the spiritual growth of its members. A harmonious social order is created by the existence of extended families and by treasuring children.

10. Status of Women in Islam:

Islam sees a woman, whether single or married, as an individual in her own right, with the right to own and dispose of her property and earnings without any guardianship over her (whether that be her father, husband, or anyone else). She has the right to buy and sell, give gifts and charity, and may spend her money as she pleases. A mandatory payment/Mehr is given by the groom to the bride for her own personal use, and she keeps her own family name rather than taking her husband’s.

Islam encourages the husband to treat his wife well, as the Prophet Muhammadr said: “The best among you are those who are best to their wives.”5

Mothers in Islam are highly honored. Islam recommends treating them in the best way. A man came to the Prophet Muhammadr and said, “O Messenger of God! Who among the people is the most worthy of my good companionship?” The Prophetr said: “Your mother.” The man said, “Then who?” The Prophetr said: “Then your mother.” The man further asked, “Then who?” The Prophetr said: “Then your mother.” The man asked again, “Then who?” The Prophetr said: “Then your father.”6

11. Treatment with elderly:

The strain of caring for one’s parents in this most difficult time of their lives is considered an honor and a blessing and an opportunity for great spiritual growth. In Islam, it is not enough that we only pray for our parents, but we should act with limitless compassion, remembering that when we were helpless children, they preferred us to themselves. Mothers are particularly honored. When Muslim parents reach old age, they are treated mercifully, with kindness and selflessness.

5  Narrated in Ibn Majah, #1978, and Al-Tirmizi, #3895.

6   Narrated in Saheeh Muslim, #2548, and Saheeh Al-Bukhari, #5971.

In Islam, serving one’s parents is a duty second to prayer, and it is their right to expect it. It is considered despicable to express any irritation when, through no fault of their own, the old become difficult. God has said: “Your Lord has commanded that you worship none but Him, and that you be kind to your parents. If one of them or both of them reach old age with you, do not say to them a word of disrespect, or scold them, but say a generous word to them. And act humbly to them in mercy, and say, “My Lord, have mercy on them, since they cared for me when I was small.”7

12. Jihād – A misunderstood word:

If you open a modern English dictionary, we would probably find the definition of Jihād as “a holy war undertaken by Muslims against non-believers”. This is a very misinterpreted and poor definition. Before trying to define what Jihād is, it should be first defined what it is not. It is must be clear that:

• Jihād is not a Holy War
• Jihād is not blowing up one’s self (Suicide is a sin in Islam)
• Jihād is not killing innocent people
• Jihād is not flying a plane into a building packed with civilians
• Jihād is not fighting out of anger and hatred
• Jihād is not killing others just because they don’t agree
• Jihād is not killing others just because they are not Muslims

It is very important to think and observe that Islam and Jihād was not interpreted and projected in this way even half a century ago.

Jihād is an Arabic word from the root ‘Ja-Ha-Da’. It literally means to struggle or strive. It is struggling or striving in the way or sake of Allāh and takes a very important status in the doctrine of Islam and is one of the basic duties for every Muslim. Though, it has nothing whatsoever to do with the term Holy War. Such a term, or its equivalent doesn’t exist in the Islamic doctrine. The Crusaders in the mid-ages invented this ideology of Holy War. There is nothing “Holy” about wars. Wars only involve killings and disasters!

Actual Jihād has many forms: Jihād of the heart/soul (Jihād bin nafs/qalb), Jihād by the tongue (Jihād bil lisan), Jihād by the pen/knowledge (Jihād bil qalam/ilm), Jihād by the hand (Jihād bil yad) and  Jihād by the sword (Jihād bis saif). It can refer to internal as well as 7  Quran, 17:23-24 external efforts to be a good Muslims or believer, as well as working to inform people about the faith of Islam. The concept of Jihād has been hijacked by many political and religious groups over the ages in a bid to justify various forms of violence. In most cases, Islamic splinter groups invoked Jihād to fight against the established Islamic order. Scholars say this misuse of Jihād contradicts Islam.

Summary:

Islam is a religion based upon the surrender to God who is One. In a religious context it means “voluntary submission to God”. The message of Islam concerns God, who in Arabic is called Allāh, and it addresses itself to humanity’s most profound nature. It concerns men and women as they were created by God–not as fallen beings. Islam therefore considers itself to be not an innovation but a reassertion of the universal truth of all revelation which is God’s Oneness.

Notes:

r – Peace be upon him

Web links

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/islam
• http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html
• http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/home
• http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam
• http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam
• http://www.friesian.com/islam.htm
• http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29

Bibliography

• The Holy Quran Shahi Bukhari.
• Kenneth Shouler (2010). The Everything World’s Religions Book: Explore the Beliefs, Traditions and Cultures of Ancient and Modern Religions,
• Lane’s Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk
• PBS (2010). Islam: Empire of Faith. Retrieved; “Islam and Christianity”, Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh