29 Dharma

T. Seshasayee

Introduction

In the ancient Hindu way of life dharma is regarded as one of the most important goals of human life (puruşārthas). The expression ‘dharma’ is derived from the etymological root ‘dhr’ means that which binds or supports or upholds. In the present context dharma stands for righteousness for it serves the purpose of a regulative principle. Dharma has been the foundation for good life and the Indian culture regards it an underlying principle for all the achievements in the areas of human inquiry such as science, philosophy, literature, arts, morality, sociality, polity, religion and spirituality. One cannot bypass dharma if one wants to lead a life that is worthy of living. Dharma provides quality to human life. Dharma, in other words, takes us to the core of the Indian civilization. In fact, dharma is a polymorphous concept that acquired different meanings in different contexts. However, the fundamental or the law-centered meaning of dharma remains unchanged.

2. Origin of the Concept of ‘Dharma’

Dharma has its origin found in the Vedic intuition called ŗta. From this moral order or force dharma has permeated into every form and facet of human life. Rta conceptualizes the vision of the Vedic seers of inexorable, unswerving and pervasive natural and moral order prevailing in the reality. The Vedic seers could see that there is some immanent teleology in the reality. And this teleology is responsible for every process in reality. Dharma is the base and sustaining power of the entire cosmic reality. In this reality everything originates in accordance with dharma. It is dharma which roots out the evil. In other words, dharma as a guiding principle of the cosmos performs multiple functions such as ordering, coordinating, integrating, regulating, supporting, and balancing. All these functions are aimed at universal welfare. It is a fact that both cosmic life and individual life are entangled in imperfection which is the cause of suffering. In order to eradicate suffering one needs to perfect oneself. This is the ultimate goal of human life. The great seers visualized that dharma is the only legitimate and efficacious means to perfection. In the Vaiśeşikasūtras, Kanada writes that dharma is that which leads to the realization of material prosperity as well as spiritual enhancement. If dharma is practiced properly it provides us with universal welfare. It is a cosmic goal which has to be realized collectively. One finds lots of instances in the classical Indian literature concerning intense human longing for cosmic welfare. None can enjoy dharma in isolation from the others in society. In the Indian culture the concept of other is very important. An individual is one among the totality called cooperative living. Such cooperative living presupposes interdependence and interrelationship among the individuals. It is dharma which ensures such cooperative living.

The Constitutive Aspect of Dharma

Dharma constitutes constitutive and regulative aspects. They are treated as the two sides of the same coin. In its constitutive aspect dharma is viewed as the law of being, which is the deepest law of our nature. As is held by the commentator (Praśastapāda) on the Vaiśeşikasūtras of Kaņāda, every padārtha has its unique dharma. In other words it is the dharma that provides individuality to any given entity. For instance, magnet has the power of attracting iron. It is its dharma. Thus dharma constitutes the being of things but also sustains them and the cosmos by determining their course of action. Dharma causes self-preservation and evolution of every padārtha. The dharma of each padārtha further enables the preservation and evolution of the cosmos. The dharma thus contributes to abhyudaya and nihśreyasa. Even in the Bhagavadgītā there is a reference to dharma in the context of four social classes (cāturvarņya). It pertains to svabhāva, guņa, and karma. Even Sri Aurobindo emphasised on this by holding that everything has its own dharma and its law of life is imposed on its nature. Though dharma is distinct to each and every individual, every individual has to partake in the totality as a member. The concepts such as brahmabhāva, sarvātmabhāva, ekātmabhāva, buddhabhāva only consolidate the above mentioned view. Each entity has its own dharma, yet it contributes to totality for its sustenance. This is the metaphysical dimension of dharma.

The great Vedic seers envisioned these qualities of dharma with their underlying unity since time immemorial. Dharma stands for peace, perfection and beatitude for the entire universe. Peace, perfection and beatitude must be brought about by humans in a conscious, systematic and planned manner. Therefore they need to exercise the communitarian spirit. Unless men act according to these noble aspirations there will not be any progress and harmony in this cosmic world.

3. The Regulative Aspect of Dharma

Dharma is something permanent and yet evolving. Its permanence is represented by its essence, and its evolution is seen in our consciousness. There are gradations in our spiritual and ethical life. We try to reach the highest law of nature through sādhana. There is evolution in moral consciousness of individuals and this will continue till perfection is achieved. This is a human ideal. Humans do not remain contended with what is given but they aspire for what ought to be achieved. Dharma shows the path to self-perfection.

Also, individuals having different capabilities have to follow different types of dharma. Sometimes one individual at different phases of one’s life has to practice different types of dharma. These dharmas are classified into svadharmas, varņadharmas, kuladharmas, and yugadharmas. Of course, there are many such dharmas to be practiced by individuals at different situations. Life being too complex we need to abide by different dharmas in different forms of life. Man lives in society and is governed by the laws of society. These laws are general dharma, and individual’s dharma should not come into conflict with this general dharma of society. Since all the individuals do not possess the same capabilities there must be a social law to accommodate this variety. For instance, we have men of knowledge, men of courage, men of intelligence for trade, and craftsmen. They are subjected to different ways of learning and training. They cannot be trained in similar fashion. In each case perfection differs depending upon one’s capabilities. But dharma encompasses all these different standards of practice as an ideal of perfection.

4. Dharma as a Human Value

The scope of dharma is so wide and varied that it encompasses the entire forms of life lived by human individuals. It is also held that in the Hindu ethics we come across four important goals of life (puruşārthas). They are: artha, kāma, dharma, and mokşa. All these four goals are of immense value to human individuals. The first three are absolutely necessary for good social life. Artha and kāma are treated as base values and dharma is treated as a higher value. Perfection in human life is the ultimate goal of every individual. Every individual seeks qualitatively good life. It is not merely the longer duration of life which is important but such duration is always needs to be qualitatively good.

If each individual performs his/her assigned duties as obligations towards others in society then the life in society would be qualitatively good. The purpose of cosmic process is reflected in the human activity. All humans endeavour to pursue those goals which have existential concern. Science and technology and other art forms are pursued for the welfare of mankind. However, in order to regulate all these incidental sciences there needs to be an overarching principle called dharma. But what kind of life is needed to be lead by the individuals for their own betterment and for the betterment of others in society is embedded in the puruşārthas. These goals of human life are the guiding principles for worthy life to be practiced by every individual. Artha, kāma, dharma and mokşa have different dimensions. All these dimensions contribute to the social and spiritual life of individuals The Hindu view of life provides an integrated approach to human life without leaving away any significant value. For instance, the stages of life, social orders, and goals of human life together contribute to a society that is worthy of human life. This framework has its own validity as a useful tool. Dharma, in this scheme, serves as an overriding principle. It is the foundation to all morality and served as the fundamental law of ancient Hindu society. The Dharmaśāstras or the treatises on the codes of conduct invariably keep dharma as their fulcrum.

5. Dharma and Human Conduct

All our reflections and considerations centre around moral and legal dimensions of human conduct. They presuppose a particular view of human conduct in which moral and legal responsibilities are taken care of. For instance, the expression ‘puruşa’ in Mīmāmsā is used to refer to the agent of action. The agent of action is not only a doer but also an enjoyer. The purpose of morality is to ensure virtuous life through proper knowledge and righteousness. Therefore the agent of action must know first what virtue is, and then pursue it with will and capability to realize it. After realizing it he has to cultivate the discipline through which he can achieve it. It is suggested in the Hindu ethics that one requires a three pronged strategy to achieve it. This strategy involves end (sādhya), means (sādhana), and modalities (itikartvyatā).

Dharma in this context stands for virtue and virtuous conduct. It regulates human conduct and hence it has instrumental value. It is viewed as a means to nihśreyasa or mokşa. The state of mokşa is technically the state of perfection. Dharma also regulates one’s desire for artha and kāma also. It provides a kind of spiritual perspective to these human goals. One has to legitimately acquire material kinds (artha) for their legitimate enjoyment (kāma). Both of these goals require a proper and balanced management through dharma. If they defy the role of dharma then they are not puruşārthas. Even in the Mahābhārata it is held that artha has economic value. For the equitable distribution of artha there is a need for dharma. Even kāma is also regulated by dharma for otherwise there is possibility of men over indulging in that. Also, one’s enjoyment of material kinds should not be impediment to social progress and harmony. Therefore, the intervention of dharma becomes important.

6.  Dharma and Law

But, in order to ensure norm-adherence and to check norm-violation there must be a secular agency. Such an agency which gives dharma to interfere into artha and kāma whenever they exceed the limits is the law and also the authority of a person (a virtuous ruler). Together they constitute rājadharma and dandanīti. Irrespective of the form of political governance, a state needs a rule of law and its enforcing authority. Without artha and kāma the puruşārthas are incomplete. For the all-round progress of society and for its prosperity we need to have dharma as a guiding principle. Universal peace, prosperity, health and happiness cannot be achieved without the interference of dharma. Any form of political governance seeks to establish the above mentioned cherished goals. Therefore, governance, legislature, executive and other forms of administration must adhere to dhārmic principles.

The rulers are not the masters. They are first public servants. As Śukra held in his Śukranīti a ruler is both a master and servant of people. One may be a master by virtue of law and a servant by virtue of wages. Therefore it is the responsibility of the ruler to protect the people just as mother protects her children. Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra writes that a ruler must always think that like anyone else he is also a paid servant. The kingdom is not meant for the ruler but it must be enjoyed together by the ruler and the ruled. Further he holds that the happiness of people is the happiness of the ruler. They are not two different things. What more satisfaction does a ruler get other than seeing the enjoyment of his own people. The benefit of people is his own benefit. What is dear to the people is also dear to him. In other words the ruler and the ruled desire the same result for they are inseparable from any form of governance. This is precisely where we see the role of dharma.

In the Ramāyaņa it appears that Lord Rāma happened to say that if people of his state are happy he is happy. Such a state is real ideal and welfare state. What else can a ruler expect from his people? Such a state is called Rāmarājya by Gandhi. The whole idea is that by ensuring the happiness of people and their well-being the ruler ensures his own well-being. A good ruler who rules his state in accordance with the rules of dharma cannot be displaced by his people. He never allows his people to wage a no trust against him. What is rājadharma? A ruler who administers to accommodate good, shun evil and vices and to proliferate virtues. Such a ruler is called dharmagoptā. Similarly, the ruler has to maintain law and order (danda). The ruler is the upholder of order. His rule must be free from vices and social evils. He is the guardian of his own people. At the time of taking oath the ruler must categorically affirm that he will ensure all the steps towards the protection of his people and never to act in an arbitrary manner. He must be the true follower of dharma. In order to execute dharma for the benefit of people he must be fearless and free to act. A ruler who exercises power and enforces punishment would get the praise of his people only when his actions are free from any partiality. Such actions bring about universal peace and happiness. The ruler also would become a role model to other rulers. Even in the Manusmŗti one finds reference to this. It is the public order that regulates people; public order protects people and provides security to them.

Summary

As discussed above dharma has many meanings in many contexts. But in every meaning of dharma its essence is retained. In the absence of dharma there is only darkness even when sun shines. Thus dharma is regarded as the most pivotal and seminal concept in the Indian culture. The whole living world is under the guidance of dharma. It stands both for means and the end, the path and the goal, what is and what ought to be. It is a concept of perennial universal significance. It is not mere theory or doctrine but it is a view of reality and the way of life. It is something to be obeyed by all. There is no sphere of existence where there is no dharma. Thus it is all pervading. It is an ideal and it is such an ideal which is not utopian. Dharma as an ideal can be translated into concrete reality. The history of humankind is a witness to this eternal truth. Unless dharma is practiced the life of humankind is going to be a war of all against all. It is dharma that makes our life qualitatively liveable. Nothing can substitute dharma as an eternal righteous principle. Even gods have to follow dharma.

Web links

• http://hinduism.about.com/od/basics/a/dharma.htm
• http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-dharma-in-hinduism-definition-lesson-quiz.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma

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